2 fear of negative social evaluation, arising from a learner’s need to make a positive social impression on others;
3 test anxiety, or apprehension over academic evaluation.
Alpert and Haber’s (1960;Scovel 1978) distinction between facilitating and debilitating anxiety, or what Oxford(1999) called “harmful” and “ helpful” anxiety. Scovel(1978) comments:
Facilitating anxiety motivates the learner to “fight” the new learning task; it gears the learner emotionally for approval behavior. Debilitating anxiety, in contrast, motivates the learner to “flee” the new learning task; it stimulates the individual emotionally to adopt avoidance behavior.
（5） 移情（empathy）
In common terminology, empathy is the process of “ putting yourself into someone else’s shoes, of reaching beyond the self to understand what another person is feeling. In more sophisticated terms, empathy is usually described as the projection of one’s own personality into the personality of another in order to understand him or her better.
According to Guiora, just as a child develops a general ego, so the child also acquires a language ego. When the child is young, the ego boundaries are relatively flexible, but they become more rigid with age. When the language ego boundaries are flexible, a new accent is more readily adopted than when the boundaries are more fixed. Some adults, presumably those who are more empathic, are likely to have more permeability of language ego boundaries, since they are able to temporarily suspend the separateness of their identity, and that should in turn result in their having an advantage in FL pronunciation.
第三节 语言学习环境
一 社会环境对目的语学习的影响
二 课堂语言环境与第二语言学习
从60年代开始，对第二语言课堂中教师和学生行为的研究逐渐成为第二语言习得研究的一个热点问题。但是对课堂教学与学习的作用，西方学者一直有不同看法。 “无关联”与“有关联”的观点或称“无接口（non-interface position）”和“有接口（interface position）”观点。所谓“接口”是指学习者“习得的语言知识”与“学习的语言知识”之间是否可以转换的问题。这两种观点以不同的理论为基础，从不同的角度来解释课堂教学与语言习得的关系。Krashen监查模型中“习得”与“学习”的两分法就是典型的“无接口观点”；从课堂学习中得到的语言知识只能发挥监察的作用，无法在语言交际中运用，而语言交际能力则取决于通过自然习得过程所获得的知识。从学习中得到的有意识的语言知识无法转变为语言交际所需要的无意识的语言知识。 与此相反，“有接口观点”的学者很多，影响较大的有Bialystok和Sharwood Smith。“有接口”的观点充分强调了学习系统的知识可以转化为习得系统的知识，这一观点较为可信地解释了为什么在课堂教学中学习语言有可能比在自然环境中学习效果要好，因为课堂学习者有两种不同的途径来扩展习得系统的知识；语言知识通过课堂内和课堂外提供的习得环境直接得到扩展，以及通过语言操练将学习系统的知识直觉化、自动化而间接地得到扩展。“有接口”的观点似乎可以对课堂教学提高语言习得速度作出较为圆满的解释，但却无法说明为什么课堂教学无法改变语言习得顺序。
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