10 Foreignizing 11 Code-switching 12 Appeal for help
13 Stalling or time-gaining strategies
4 认知方式
认知方式（cognitive style）是人们感知和认识世界的方式，对学习者来说，也是其学习方式。认知方式存在着个体差异，这里着重讨论场独立和场依存、审慎与冲动、歧义容忍度。 (1) 场独立性（field independence）和场依存性（field dependence）
Field independence is the ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a “field” of distracting items. In general psychological terms, that “field” may be perceptual, or it may be more abstract and refer to a set of thoughts, ideas, or feelings from which your task is to perceive specific relevant subsets(like reading a book in a noisy train station).
Field dependence is, conversely, the tendency to be “dependent” on the total field so that the parts embedded within the field are not easily perceived, although that total field is perceived more clearly as a unified whole.（实验：通过在复杂的图案里找出简单的几何图形作实验。通过彩色的、在森林里有树、花等，找出隐藏的猴子。）
在第二语言学习中，场独立性的学习者由于分析能力强，能从一定的语境中把语言项目分离出来，长于在课堂教学中有意识地学习语言形式，有场独立性的人自信心强，富于竞争性，也善于考试。场依存性的学习者则长于在自然语言环境中习得语言，他们关心别人，善于与别人交往，因而易于在交际过程中潜意识地习得语言。研究还表明儿童的场依存性大一些，因而易于在自然环境中习得语言，与此同时其场独立性逐渐发展。成人的场独立性强，需要在正规的课堂学习环境里学习第二语言。由于第二语言学习既需要能在一定的语境中从整体上把握语言所表达的内容，又要能离开语境对具体的语言结构进行分析理解，因此这两种认知方式第二语言学习者都应具备，并根据学习的特点灵活运用。西方学者有很多实验表明场独立性的学习者第二语言学习的效果要好，有的学者就认为场独立性应成为语言学能的一个组成部分。
（2）审慎型（reflectivity）与冲动型(impulsivity)
Individuals who have a reflective cognitive style tend to mull things over when making a dicision. Conversely, an impulsive person tends to make a quick guess when faced with uncertainty. （实验：Matching Familiar Figures Test. Subjects are presented with a figure and then a number of facsimiles.）
在课堂中，审慎型的学习者不轻易开口，表现得冷静持重，而冲动型的学习者则非常活跃，但让他发言有时却尚未想好答案。两种认知方式也是各有长短。冲动型的学习者易犯错误，一般口语听说能力强；审慎性的学习者知识比较扎实，特别适应归纳法的教学，读写能力较强，但过分审慎，过慢的速度不利于参与语言交际活动，也不利于语言交际能力的培养。实践表明，冲动型的学习者易于较快地取得小的进步，而审慎型的学习者虽然在某一阶段停留的时间可能很长，但其进步的幅度要大得多。 （3）歧义容忍度（ambiguity tolerance）
Ambiguity tolerance is the degree to which you are cognitively willing to tolerate ideas and propositions that run counter to your own belief system or structure of knowledge. Some people are relatively open-minded in accepting ideologies and events and facts that contradict their own views; they are more content than others to entertain and even internalize contradictory propositions. Others, more closed-minded and dogmatic, tend to reject items that are contradictory
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or slightly incongruent with their existing system; they wish to see every proposition fit into an acceptable place in their cognitive organization, and if it does not fit, it is rejected.
在第二语言学习中经常遇到歧义现象。除了目的语的结构与学习者的母语有很大的不同，一种语言的规则错综复杂，存在很多矛盾和例外现象不易掌握外，还存在两种文化的差异与冲突。在这种情况下，歧义容忍度高的认知方式会较好地处理这些问题，从而有利于第二语言的学习。但歧义容忍度过高也会导致对歧义研究分析不够，因容忍而不予深究，以致影响到对知识的吸收。另一方面歧义容忍度低，在语言学习中事事要弄个一清二楚，实际上是不可能的，结果会导致回避甚至拒绝歧义现象和自相矛盾的现象，这也是有害于第二语言学习的。理想的第二语言学习者既要能采取开放型的态度容忍歧义，同时又能探究歧义以促进语言学习。
三 情感因素
情感因素在第二语言习得中起着极其重要的作用。有的西方学者（如斯特恩）就认为其作用甚至比认知因素还要重要，是启动后者的点火机。在上一章也介绍过克拉申的情感过滤假说，把情感因素看成是可能阻碍学习者吸收输入信息的一种心理屏障。作为个体因素中的情感因素主要指动机、态度和性格。
1 动机（motivation） （1）动机的含义
动机是激励个体从事某种行为的内在动力，常表现为为达到某种目的而付出努力的愿望。据调查，在影响第二语言学习的诸因素中，动机占33%，学能占33%，智力占20%，其他占14%。西方学者常常将动机看作是人类为满足需要而采取行动的欲望，这种需要有生理上的，也有心理上的。
Ausubel (1968), for example, identified six needs undergirding the construct of motivation: A the need for exploration, for seeing “ the other side of the mountain,” for probing the unknown;
B the need for manipulation, for operating—to use Skinner’s term—on the environment and causing change.
C the need for activity, for movement and exercise, both physical and mental;
D the need for stimulation, the need to be stimulated by the environment, by other people, or by ideas, thoughts, and feelings;
E the need for knowledge, the need to process and internalize the results of exploration, manipulation, activity, and stimulation, to resolve contradictions, to quest for solutions to problems and for self-consistent systems of knowledge;
F finally, the need for ego enbancement, for the self to be known and to be accepted and approved of by others.
第二语言习得的动机是推动学习者学习并达到掌握第二语言目的的一种强烈愿望，包括目的、要达到目的的愿望、对学习的态度和努力行动四个方面。
（2）动机的分类
内部动机（intrinsic motivation）和外部动机（extrinsic motivation） Edward Deci(1975) defined intrinsic motivation:
Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity itself. Intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, feelings of competence and self-determination.
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Extrinsically motivated behaviors, on the other hand, are carried out in anticipation of a reward from outside and beyond the self. Typical extrinsic rewards are money, prizes,grades,and even certain types of feedback.
动机还有近景动机和远景动机。近景动机是指与学习活动直接联系、具体、局部的动机，如为了应付考试或为了与同学竞争班上的好名次而临时突出，这类动机作用的动机范围小、时间短，但往往十分强烈。远景动机则是与长远目标特别是有社会意义的目标相联系。
融合型动机（integrative motivation）和工具型动机（instrumental motivation）。
Gardner and Lambert proposed a construct they called integrative motivation. A learner is said to be integratively motivated when the learner wishes to identify with another ethnolinguistic group. 融合型动机是指为了跟目的语社团直接进行交际，与目的语文化有更多的接触、甚至想进一步融合到第二语言社团中成为其一员。
While instrumental motivation, in which the learner is motivated to learn an L2 for utilitarian purposes, such as furthering a career, improving social status or meeting an educational requirement. 工具型动机是指把第二语言用作工具的实际目的，如查阅资料，进行研究，寻找工作，提高自己的知识水平，改善自己的社会地位等。
According to Gardner and Lamber, an instrumentally oriented learner can be as intensively motivated as an integratively oriented one; however, they hypothesized that the latter orientation would be better in the long run for sustaining the drive necessary to master the L2. (Later, Gardner and Lamber expanded the number of contexts they investigated, and it was challenged. “It seems that in settings where there is an urgency about mastering a second language—as in the Philippines and in North America for members of linguistic minority groups—the instrumental approach to language study is extremely effective. (1972)
2 态度（attitude）
态度是构成动机的主要因素之一。它是个体对某种客观事物的评价性反应，是在对事物了解的基础上产生情感上的褒贬好恶，并反应出对之采取的倾向性。
影响学习态度的几个方面是： （1） 对目的语社团和文化的态度。 （2） 对目的语的态度。
（3） 对课程和教师、教材的态度。
Besides the language learners’ views of the TL group; however, there are other sources of and targets for attitudes which come into play when people are engaged in SLA. As Spolsky(1969) has maintained: (1) Parents. Children often adopt their parents’ attitudes and children’s success was directly related to parents’ attitudes. (2) Peers. Shuy, Wolfram and Riley(1967) found that dialect patterns cluster according to age, sex and socioeconomic status. (3) Learning situation. For example, learners can hold negative attitudes towards the learning situation if the teacher’s agenda is very different from the learners’. Sometimes this negativity becomes severe enough that learners abandon language study completely. (4) Teachers. (5) Ethnicity. One’s ethnic group membership might also determine attitudes and behaviour members of other groups, and these in turn might affect SL attainment. Beebe found that the Thai spoken by ethnic Chinese sounded more Chinese when they were speaking to an
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ethnic Chinese interviewer than when they were speaking to an ethnic Thai interviewer.
3 性格
性格特征对第二语言习得的影响是公认的。个性特征是重要的情感因素。主要包括内向和外向、自尊与抑制、焦虑和移情等个性特征。 （1） 内向（introversion）与外向（extroversion）
一般认为外向型性格有利于习得第二语言，内向型则不利于学习第二语言。但一些调查结果并没有明显地支持这种看法。可能是由于语言能力和语言交际能力的不同方面，需要不同的性格特征，不能一概而论。外向型的学习者喜欢多说话，愿意交际，不怕犯错误，这就能获得较多的语言输入和输出的机会，特别有利于强调快速反应的口语能力的提高；但缺点在于不太注重语言形式的严格要求。而内向型的学习者由于不爱说话，不爱交际，可能在口语能力的提高方面慢一些，但能对语言输入进行细致的形式分析，对文化因素能做扎实的探求，在听力、阅读理解及写作能力方面钻研较深，其总体水平不一定比外向型学习者差。 （2） 自尊心（self-esteem）和抑制（inhibition）
Self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that individuals hold towards themselves. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other overt expressive behavior.
All human beings, in their understanding of themselves, build sets of defenses to protect the ego. Some persons—those with higher self-esteem and ego strength—are more able to withstand threats to their existence, and thus their defenses are lower. Those with weaker self-esteem maintain walls of inhibition to protect what is self-perceived to be a weak or fragile ego, or a lack of self-confidence in a situation or task..
The human ego encompasses what Guiora(1972) and Ehrman(1996) refer to as language ego or the very personal, egoistic nature of second language acquisition. Meaningful language acquisition involves some degree of identity conflict as language learners take on a new identity with their newly acquired competence. An adaptive language ego enables learners to lower the inhibitions that may impede success. 圭奥拉在研究第二语言习得过程中的抑制心理时，提出语言自我（language ego）的概念，用来表示对自己语言的认同。学习一门新的语言实际上是建立一种新的语言自我，会造成对自身评价的变化。儿童的自我意识处在发展之中，有较强的可塑性，抑制较小，学习一种新的语言对儿童的自我不会造成太大的影响。过了青春期，保护自我的意识增强，也包括要保护以母语为基础的语言自我，已经形成了抑制的屏障。这是的语言自我也就有了一定的保护性。学习一种新的语言并用来进行交际会犯错误，会当众出洋相，尤其是成年人比较复杂的思想与较低的目的语表达能力形成了反差与矛盾，有时觉得十分难堪。这表明建立新的语言自我要付出相当的代价，不仅对已有的语言自我、而且对整个自我会造成伤害，因此感到很不安全，更增强了学习过程中的抑制。这也可以说明承认学习第二语言的情感因素与儿童的不同之处。过高的抑制心理显然不利于第二语言的习得，学习者和教师需要在学习过程中逐步排除这一心理屏障。 （4） 焦虑（anxiety）
Intricately intertwined with self-esteem and inhibition and risk-taking, anxiety is associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt, apprehension, or worry(Scovel 1978).
Three components of foreign language anxiety have been identified(Horwitz et al 1986; Maclntyre&Gardner 1989):
1 communication apprehension, arising from learners inability to adequately express mature thoughts and ideas;
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2 fear of negative social evaluation, arising from a learner’s need to make a positive social impression on others;
3 test anxiety, or apprehension over academic evaluation.
Alpert and Haber’s (1960;Scovel 1978) distinction between facilitating and debilitating anxiety, or what Oxford(1999) called “harmful” and “ helpful” anxiety. Scovel(1978) comments:
Facilitating anxiety motivates the learner to “fight” the new learning task; it gears the learner emotionally for approval behavior. Debilitating anxiety, in contrast, motivates the learner to “flee” the new learning task; it stimulates the individual emotionally to adopt avoidance behavior.
（5） 移情（empathy）
In common terminology, empathy is the process of “ putting yourself into someone else’s shoes, of reaching beyond the self to understand what another person is feeling. In more sophisticated terms, empathy is usually described as the projection of one’s own personality into the personality of another in order to understand him or her better.
According to Guiora, just as a child develops a general ego, so the child also acquires a language ego. When the child is young, the ego boundaries are relatively flexible, but they become more rigid with age. When the language ego boundaries are flexible, a new accent is more readily adopted than when the boundaries are more fixed. Some adults, presumably those who are more empathic, are likely to have more permeability of language ego boundaries, since they are able to temporarily suspend the separateness of their identity, and that should in turn result in their having an advantage in FL pronunciation.
第三节 语言学习环境
一 社会环境对目的语学习的影响
二 课堂语言环境与第二语言学习
从60年代开始，对第二语言课堂中教师和学生行为的研究逐渐成为第二语言习得研究的一个热点问题。但是对课堂教学与学习的作用，西方学者一直有不同看法。 “无关联”与“有关联”的观点或称“无接口（non-interface position）”和“有接口（interface position）”观点。所谓“接口”是指学习者“习得的语言知识”与“学习的语言知识”之间是否可以转换的问题。这两种观点以不同的理论为基础，从不同的角度来解释课堂教学与语言习得的关系。Krashen监查模型中“习得”与“学习”的两分法就是典型的“无接口观点”；从课堂学习中得到的语言知识只能发挥监察的作用，无法在语言交际中运用，而语言交际能力则取决于通过自然习得过程所获得的知识。从学习中得到的有意识的语言知识无法转变为语言交际所需要的无意识的语言知识。 与此相反，“有接口观点”的学者很多，影响较大的有Bialystok和Sharwood Smith。“有接口”的观点充分强调了学习系统的知识可以转化为习得系统的知识，这一观点较为可信地解释了为什么在课堂教学中学习语言有可能比在自然环境中学习效果要好，因为课堂学习者有两种不同的途径来扩展习得系统的知识；语言知识通过课堂内和课堂外提供的习得环境直接得到扩展，以及通过语言操练将学习系统的知识直觉化、自动化而间接地得到扩展。“有接口”的观点似乎可以对课堂教学提高语言习得速度作出较为圆满的解释，但却无法说明为什么课堂教学无法改变语言习得顺序。
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