systematic gaps.

? Suprasegmental features

? Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.

? These features are distinctive features. ? Stress ? Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word. ? Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress. ? If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.

? In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable. ? Intonation

? When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas. ? Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.

? The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.

? In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise. ? Tone

? Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.

? The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones. ? Chinese is a typical tone language. -

转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86123.html Chapter 2 Phonetics ? What is phonetics?

? Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds. ? Sub-branches of phonetics ? Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds ? Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds ? Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds

? The speech organs

? Where does the air stream come from? ? From the lung

? What is the function of vocal cords? ? Controlling the air stream ? What are the cavities? ? Oral cavity

? Pharyngeal cavity

? Nasal cavity

? Transcription of speech sounds

? Units of representation

? Segments (the individual sounds) ? Phonetic symbols

? The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

? The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.

? In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.

? Description of speech sounds

? Description of English consonants ? General feature: obstruction ? Criteria of consonant description ? Places of articulation ? Manners of articulation ? Voicing of articulation ? Places of articulation

? This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound. ? Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w] ? Labiodental: [f] [v] ? Interdental: [?] [?]

? Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r] ? Palatal: [?] [?] [t?] [d?] [j] ? Velar: [k] [g] [?] ? Glottal: [h]

? Manners of articulation

? This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.

? Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]

? Fricatives: [s] [z] [?] [?] [f] [v] [?] [?] [h] ? Affricates: [t?] [d?] ? Liquids: [l] [r] ? Glides: [w] [j]

? Nasals: [m] [n] [?] ? Voicing of articulation

? This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced. ? Voiced sounds

? Voiceless sounds

? Description of English vowels

? General feature: without obstruction ? Criteria of vowel description ? Part of the tongue that is raised ? Front ? Central ? Back

? Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate ? High ? Mid ? Low

? Kind of opening made at the lips ? Position of the soft palate

? Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs

? Phonetic features and natural classes

? Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes. ? Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel boundary.

? Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of sounds can be analyzed.

第三章“词汇”问题和练习

1. 解释下列术语

语素 复合词 屈折变化 词缀 派生词 词根 语素变体 词干 粘着语素 自由语素 词位 词汇 语法词 词汇词 封闭类 开放类 混成法 借词

混合借词 转移借词 缩略语 脱落 逆构词法 同化 异化 俗词源

2. 给下列词加上适当的否定前缀

a. removable m. syllabic b. formal n. normal

c. practicable o. workable d. sensible p. written e. tangible q. usual f. logical r. thinkable g. regular s. human

h. proportionate t. relevant i. effective u. editable j. elastic v. mobile k. ductive w. legal l. rational x. discreet

3. 语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。那么语素是语法概念还是语义概念？它跟单位是什么关系？语素和音位能够构成一个有机整体吗？ 4. 阅读下面一段话，列出所有能找到的功能词。（包括be的所有形式，都看作功能词）并给出这段话中功能词的百分比。

She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generation of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home.

5. \完全由两个或更多的较小形式构成的自由形式是词组。不是词组的自由形式是词。那么，词??是最小的自由形式。\（布龙菲尔德，1935：178） 回答下面的问题：

（a）\词\这个术语是有歧义的。布龙菲尔德的定义想要涵盖哪一种词？

（b）英语中有没有传统认为是词（在\词\的合适意义上）却不能满足布龙菲尔德定义的词？

（c）词的定义中还用到了哪些其他的标准？

6.找出下列混合词的来源。假如词典中没有提供答案，请根据自己的理解来判断。 (a) bash; (b) smash; (c) glimmer; (d) flimmer; (e) clash; (f) flare; (g) brunch; (h ) motel; (i) transistor; (j) medicare; (k) workaholic; (l) spam; (m) telethon; (n) aerobicise; (o) chunnel; (p) chortle; (q) bit; (r) modem; (s) guestimate; (t) threepeat.

7. 确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中选出正确的解释。

栏 1 栏 2 栏 3

(a) hangnail aching nail hanging nail

(b) female a male's companion little woman (c) crayfish crawling fish crab

(d) shamefaced face reflecting shame bound by shame (e) Jordan almond imported almond garden almond (f) sparrowgrass a genus of herbs bird nesting in grass (g) belfre bell tower bell