Chapter 4 Morphology ? What is morphology?
? The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.
? Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning. ? Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.
? Morphemes and allomorphs
? The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.
? A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs. ? “zero” form of a morpheme and suppletives ? Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one “zero form” of a morpheme. ? Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.
? Free and bound morphemes
? Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.
? Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes. ? The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.
? Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).
? Inflexional and derivational morphemes
? Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.
? Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words. ? English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.
? Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.
? The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.
? Conclusion: classification of morphemes
? Morphemes ? Free morphemes
? Bound morphemes ? Inflexional
? Derivational: affixes ? Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s ? Suffixes
? Formation of new words
? Derivation
? Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.
? Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.
? Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category. Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin. ? Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors. ? Some English suffixes also change the word stress. ? Compounding
? Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes. ? The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.
? In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word. ? The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components. ? Conversion
? Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class. ? Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme. ? Clipping
? Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables. ? Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.
? Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form. ? Blending
? Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students – “plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike). ? Back-formation ? Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as
that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise. ? Acronyms and abbreviations ? Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.
? Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.
? This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology. ? Eponyms
? Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling. ? Coinage
? Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.
? This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.
? For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes of Practical English Grammar.
转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86983.html Chapter 3 Phonology ? What is phonology?
? Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.
? Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds. ? Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.
? What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? ? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?
? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?
? Phonemes and allophones
? A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature. ? The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones. ? We use allophones to realize phonemes.
? Discovering phonemes
? Contrastive distribution – phonemes ? If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution. ? Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets. ? A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.
? Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.
? The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution. ? Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes. ? Complementary distribution – allophones ? Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution. ? If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme. ? Free variation
? If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.
? Distinctive and non-distinctive features
? Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features. ? Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.
? Phonological rules
? Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.
? What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.
? The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as rules.
? There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as examples. ? [+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_ ? [-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_
? Syllable structure
? A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes. ? Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.
? The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.
? Sequence of phonemes
? Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put together.
? Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.
? Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps. ? When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but they will never fill
systematic gaps.
? Suprasegmental features
? Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.
? These features are distinctive features. ? Stress ? Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word. ? Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress. ? If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.
? In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable. ? Intonation
? When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas. ? Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.
? The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.
? In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise. ? Tone
? Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.
? The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones. ? Chinese is a typical tone language. -
转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86123.html Chapter 2 Phonetics ? What is phonetics?
? Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds. ? Sub-branches of phonetics ? Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds ? Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds ? Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds
? The speech organs
? Where does the air stream come from? ? From the lung
? What is the function of vocal cords? ? Controlling the air stream ? What are the cavities? ? Oral cavity
? Pharyngeal cavity
? Nasal cavity
? Transcription of speech sounds
? Units of representation
? Segments (the individual sounds) ? Phonetic symbols
? The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
? The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.
? In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.
? Description of speech sounds
? Description of English consonants ? General feature: obstruction ? Criteria of consonant description ? Places of articulation ? Manners of articulation ? Voicing of articulation ? Places of articulation
? This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound. ? Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w] ? Labiodental: [f] [v] ? Interdental: [?] [?]
? Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r] ? Palatal: [?] [?] [t?] [d?] [j] ? Velar: [k] [g] [?] ? Glottal: [h]
? Manners of articulation
? This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.
? Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
? Fricatives: [s] [z] [?] [?] [f] [v] [?] [?] [h] ? Affricates: [t?] [d?] ? Liquids: [l] [r] ? Glides: [w] [j]
? Nasals: [m] [n] [?] ? Voicing of articulation
? This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced. ? Voiced sounds
? Voiceless sounds
? Description of English vowels
? General feature: without obstruction ? Criteria of vowel description ? Part of the tongue that is raised ? Front ? Central ? Back
? Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate ? High ? Mid ? Low
? Kind of opening made at the lips ? Position of the soft palate
? Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs
? Phonetic features and natural classes
? Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes. ? Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel boundary.
? Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of sounds can be analyzed.
第三章“词汇”问题和练习
1. 解释下列术语
语素 复合词 屈折变化 词缀 派生词 词根 语素变体 词干 粘着语素 自由语素 词位 词汇 语法词 词汇词 封闭类 开放类 混成法 借词
混合借词 转移借词 缩略语 脱落 逆构词法 同化 异化 俗词源
2. 给下列词加上适当的否定前缀
a. removable m. syllabic b. formal n. normal
c. practicable o. workable d. sensible p. written e. tangible q. usual f. logical r. thinkable g. regular s. human
h. proportionate t. relevant i. effective u. editable j. elastic v. mobile k. ductive w. legal l. rational x. discreet
3. 语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。那么语素是语法概念还是语义概念？它跟单位是什么关系？语素和音位能够构成一个有机整体吗？ 4. 阅读下面一段话，列出所有能找到的功能词。（包括be的所有形式，都看作功能词）并给出这段话中功能词的百分比。
She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generation of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home.
5. \完全由两个或更多的较小形式构成的自由形式是词组。不是词组的自由形式是词。那么，词??是最小的自由形式。\（布龙菲尔德，1935：178） 回答下面的问题：
（a）\词\这个术语是有歧义的。布龙菲尔德的定义想要涵盖哪一种词？
（b）英语中有没有传统认为是词（在\词\的合适意义上）却不能满足布龙菲尔德定义的词？
（c）词的定义中还用到了哪些其他的标准？
6.找出下列混合词的来源。假如词典中没有提供答案，请根据自己的理解来判断。 (a) bash; (b) smash; (c) glimmer; (d) flimmer; (e) clash; (f) flare; (g) brunch; (h ) motel; (i) transistor; (j) medicare; (k) workaholic; (l) spam; (m) telethon; (n) aerobicise; (o) chunnel; (p) chortle; (q) bit; (r) modem; (s) guestimate; (t) threepeat.
7. 确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中选出正确的解释。
栏 1 栏 2 栏 3
(a) hangnail aching nail hanging nail
(b) female a male's companion little woman (c) crayfish crawling fish crab
(d) shamefaced face reflecting shame bound by shame (e) Jordan almond imported almond garden almond (f) sparrowgrass a genus of herbs bird nesting in grass (g) belfre bell tower bell
(h) bridegroom a woman is just or a man is just, or about about to be married to be married
(i) muskrat a large rat-like animal a large musk deer (Algonquian: musquash)
(j) woodchuck a north American goat a north American (Algonquian: otchek) marmot
8. 从下面的逆构词确定本来项目的形式。
(a) asset: ______ (b) burgle: ______ (c) enthuse: ______ (d) greed: ______ (e) hush: ______ (f) automate: ______ (g) donate: ______ (h) escalate: ______ (i) homesick: ______ (j) peddle: ______ (k) diagnose: ______ (l) tuit: ______
(m) amusing: ______ (n) loaf: ______
(o) self-destruct：______ (p) attrit: ______ (q) hairdress: ______ (r) emote: ______ (s) drowse: ______ (t) frivol: ______
9. 确定下列词语的直接语源。（例如，\的直接语源是法语，尽管它更远的来源是拉丁语。）
(a) air: ______
(b) barbecue: ______ (c) bungalow: ______ (d) cola: ______ (e) gusto: ______ (f) Babel: ______ (g) buffalo: ______ (h) cocoa: ______ (i) costume: ______ (j) ill: ______ (k) mule: ______
(l) decreed: ______ (m) revolution: ______ (n) benevolent: ______ (o) lie: ______ (p) topic: ______ (q) subject: _____ (r) theme: ______ (s) wind: ______ (t) datum: ______
10. 把下列词语进行分类，分出借词（LW）、混合借词（LB）、转移借词（LS）、翻译借词（LT）：
booby trap, coconut, loanword, monk, firewater, free verse, war paint, yankee.
11. 如果有两个词缀-ly，一个生成形容词，另一个附在形容词后生成副词，我们能找到同时包含这两个词缀的词吗？
12. 从下列词语中列出后面能加-s的名词。
epiphany, foot, hat, house, kitchen, ox, phenomenon, region, sheep, tomato
13. 有没有这样的词缀，能附加在动词后面，不会产生或没有很特殊的意义，而且不会改变动词的类别？
转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/0823035.html 2.
a. irremovable m. dissyllabic b. informal n. abnormal
c. impracticable o. unworkable d. insensible p. unwritten e. intangible q. unusual f. illogical r. unthinkable g. irregular s. inhuman
h. disproportionate t. irrelevant i. ineffective u. uneditable j. inelastic v. immobile k. inductive w. illegal l. irrational x. indiscreet
3. 既然把语素定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位，那么它同时涉及了语言单位的语法方面和语义方面。一个语素可能就是一个音位，如I（我）；但是一个语素通常不是一个音位，如pig(猪)，整个单词是一个语素，也就是说pig是具独立的自由语素，但是音位是/p/, /I/和/g/。
4. 这段话中包含的功能词有：she, was, a, and, when, she, for, she, was, past, of, her, were, in, but, this, and, as, she, a, that, from, of, would, to, her, a, of, that, had, over, she, would, the, it, on, her, and, it和the。整段文章共有85个单诩词。其中功能词有40个。所以功能词在这段文章中所占的比例是40/85≈47%
5. (a) 布龙菲尔德想把book, books, 或者do, does, did, done这样的词自主理成同一个词的不同形式，而不是看作不同的词。但另一方面，他又主张把John's hat 中的 John's当作一个词。同样the boy's (hat)也只是一个词。由此我们可以看出布龙菲尔德对词的定义，是想要用同样的标准来涵盖不同的语言单位。
（b）像和这样的语法冠词，传统认为是跟所修饰的中心语不同的词。但是布龙菲尔德不这样看，具体观点参看（a）。 （c）因此，在定义词的范围时，还考虑了语法标准。例如，the king of England's或者the man I saw yesterday这样一些用作前修饰的成分，布龙菲尔德把它们作为独立的长词处理。其实这种修饰词，是降级短语，根本就是不词。 6.
(a) bash：(b)at + m(ash) (b) smash: (sm)ack + m(ash)
(c) glimmer: (g)leam + sh(immer) (e) clash: (cl)ap + cr(ash) (f) flare: (fl)ame + gl(immer) (g) brunch: (br)eakfast + l(unch) (h) motel: (mo)tor + ho(tel)
(i) transistor: (trans)fer + res(ister) (j) medicare: (medi)cal + (care) (k) workaholic: (work) + alco(holic) (l) spam: (sp)iced + h(am)
(m) telethon: (tele)phone + mara(thon) (n) aerobicise: (aerobi)cs + exer(cise) (o) chunnel: (ch)uckle + sn(ort) (p) chortle: (ch)uckle + sn(ort) (q) bit: (b)inary + dig(it)
(r) modem: (mo)dulator + (dem)odulator (s) guestimate: (guess) + es(timate) (t) threepeat: (three) + re(peat)
7. 确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中划出正确的单词。
（a）hangnail （由agnail, angnail变化而来） aching nail
（b）female （中古英语：femel, femelle） a male's companion （c）（中古英语：jardin almande） garden almond
（d）shamefaced （由asparagus 变化而来） bound by shame （e）Jordan almond（中古英语：jardin almande garden almond （f）sparrowgrass （由asparagus变化而来） a genus of herbs （g）belfre（中古英语：berfrey） bell tower
（h）bridegroom （中古英语：bridegome） a man is just, or about to be married （i）muskrat（阿尔冈琴语系：musquash） a large rat-like animal
（j）woodchuck （阿尔冈琴语系：otchek） a north American marmot
8. (a) asset: (assets) (b) burgle: (burglar)
(c) enthuse: (enthusiasm) (d) greed: (greedy) (e) hush: (husht)
(f) automate: (automation) (g) donate: (donation) (h) escalate: (escalator)
(i) homesick: (homesickness) (j) peddle: (peddler)
(k) diagnose: (diagnosis) (l) tuit: (intuition) (m) amusing: (amuse) (n) loaf: (loafer)
(o) self-destruct：(self-destruction) (p) attrit: (attrition)
(q) hairdress: (hairdresser) (r) emote: (emotion) (s) drowse: (drowsy) (t) frivol: (frivolous)
9. (a) air: 中世纪英语 (b) barbecue: 美洲西班牙 (c) bungalow: 北印度语 (d) cola: 源自非洲语言 (e) gusto: 西班牙语 (f) Babel: 圣经
(g) buffalo: 意大利语 (h) cocoa: 西班牙语 (i) costume: 法语 (j) ill: 中世纪英语
(k) mule: 中世纪英语 (l) decreed: 拉丁语
(m) revolution: 中世纪英语 (n) benevolent: 中世纪英语 (o) lie: 中世纪英语 (p) topic: 拉丁语
(q) subject: 中世纪英语 (r) theme: 中世纪英语 (s) wind: 中世纪英语 (t) datum: 拉丁语
10. 借词 混合借词 转移借词 翻译借词
monk booby trap yankee firewater loanword coconut free verse war paint 11. 不能。
* friendilily * timelily * ghostlily
13. -ed表示一般过去时: He walked home. -s表示一般现在时: He walks home. -ing表示进行体: He is walking home.
转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/0823035_2.html . 名词解释
概念意义 外延 内涵 指称
涵义 同义关系 互补反义关系 等级反义关系 反向反义关系 关系对立 上下义关系 上坐标词 语义成分 复合性 选择限制 命题逻辑 命题 谓词逻辑
2. 下面这段话选自Lewis carroll 的Through the Looking Glass，讨论其中mean一词的意义。
\stand chattering to yourself like that,\Humpty Dumpty said, looking at her for the first time, \ \
\a stupid name enough!\Humpty Dumpty interrupted impatiently．\dose it mean？\
\？\．
\，\am - and a handsome shape it is，too． With a name like yours, you might be any shape， almost．\
3. 从语义学角度，特别是从涵义关系角度，分析下面这首诗。 Coloured
Dear White Fella You White Fella
Couple things you should know- When you born, you pink When I born, I black When you grow up, you white When I grow up, I black When you go in sun, you red When I go in sun, I black When you cold, you blue When I cold, I black When you scared, you yellow When I scared, I black When you sick, you green
When I sick, I black And when you die you grey And when I die-I still black And you have the cheek To call me coloured?
4. 有人主张没有真正的同义词。如果两词意义的确相同，那么其中一个终将消亡。人们常引的一个例子是单词\的废弃，它被\所取代。你同意这种看法吗？一般地看，当我们说两词互为同义词时，是指的哪种意义类型？
5. 本文没有提及\：unfriendly\，\：dishonest\，\：abnormal\，\：infrequent\， \：illogical\和\：irresponsible\这样的反义词。它们属于哪种反义关系？
6. 英国语言学家F．R．Palmer在他的Semantics（《语义学》）（p．97）一书中指出，\在[等级反义关系和互补反义关系]之间没有绝对的区分。有时我们可以把male / female，married / single，alive / dead看作等级反义词，某人可能very male（很男性化）或者more married（更像已婚的），而且当然可能more dead than alive.\试评论此观点。
7. 姜望琪（1991：79）称\在某种程度上，我们可以说任何两个同词性的词都可能成为反义词，只要这两个词之间的意义差别在该上下文正好是需要强调的这一点。\他用的两个例句如下所示。你怎么看待这一观点？
You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one． He's no statesman, but a mere politician. 8. 把下面的逻辑式翻译成英语。其中a = Ann，b = Bill，c = Carol，L = like，M = mother，x和y是变项，可根据量词的不同译为\，\或\。
(a) M (a, b)
(b) L (b, c) & L (c, b) (c) L (a, b) & ～ L (a, c) (d) [反 E] x (L (x, b)) (e) ～ [倒 A] x (L (x, c))
(f) ～ [反 E] x ([倒 A] y (L (y, x)))
转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/4521320502.html 2. 文中\意义\（mean）表币\所指\（refer to），这是它在\指称论\中所用的意义。
3. 这首诗涉及单词\的意义。作者巧妙地利用了它\不同的颜色\这一意义来反对把黑人称为\有色人种\。这也从另一角度表明，\不是\（红色的）、\（绿色的）、'\（黄色的）等词的上坐标词。
4. 没有绝对的同义词，这一看法是正确的。当人们说两词同义时，通常是指它们有相同的概念意义。
5. 从词源上讲，这些反义词可能都是互补的。但是实际上，其中有些现在是等级的，特别是\：unfriendly。
6. 对语言学初学者讲等级反义关系和互补反义关系之间的区分是相对的，这一做法不可取。表达式\，'并个是真正的比较级。 7. 这一看法是有道理的。 8.
（a）Ann is Bill's mother.
（b）Bill loves Carol，and Carol loves Bill.
（c）Ann loves Bill, but Ann doesn't love Carol. （d）Someone loves Bill.
（e）Not everyone loves Carol.
（f）There is no one who is loved by everyone. 转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/4521320502_2.html 3第三章“词汇”问题和练习
1. 解释下列术语
语素 复合词 屈折变化 词缀 派生词 词根 语素变体 词干 粘着语素 自由语素 词位 词汇 语法词 词汇词 封闭类 开放类 混成法 借词
混合借词 转移借词 缩略语 脱落 逆构词法 同化 异化 俗词源
2. 给下列词加上适当的否定前缀
a. removable m. syllabic b. formal n. normal
c. practicable o. workable d. sensible p. written e. tangible q. usual f. logical r. thinkable g. regular s. human
h. proportionate t. relevant i. effective u. editable j. elastic v. mobile k. ductive w. legal l. rational x. discreet
3. 语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。那么语素是语法概念还是语义概念？它跟单位是什么关系？语素和音位能够构成一个有机整体吗？ 4. 阅读下面一段话，列出所有能找到的功能词。（包括be的所有形式，都看作功能词）并给出这段话中功能词的百分比。
She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generation of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home.
5. \完全由两个或更多的较小形式构成的自由形式是词组。不是词组的自由形式是词。那么，词??是最小的自由形式。\（布龙菲尔德，1935：178） 回答下面的问题：
（a）\词\这个术语是有歧义的。布龙菲尔德的定义想要涵盖哪一种词？
（b）英语中有没有传统认为是词（在\词\的合适意义上）却不能满足布龙菲尔德定义的词？
（c）词的定义中还用到了哪些其他的标准？
6.找出下列混合词的来源。假如词典中没有提供答案，请根据自己的理解来判断。 (a) bash; (b) smash; (c) glimmer; (d) flimmer; (e) clash; (f) flare; (g) brunch; (h ) motel; (i) transistor; (j) medicare; (k) workaholic; (l) spam; (m) telethon; (n) aerobicise; (o) chunnel; (p) chortle; (q) bit; (r) modem; (s) guestimate; (t) threepeat.
7. 确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中选出正确的解释。
栏 1 栏 2 栏 3
(a) hangnail aching nail hanging nail
(b) female a male's companion little woman (c) crayfish crawling fish crab
(d) shamefaced face reflecting shame bound by shame (e) Jordan almond imported almond garden almond (f) sparrowgrass a genus of herbs bird nesting in grass (g) belfre bell tower bell
(h) bridegroom a woman is just or a man is just, or about about to be married to be married
(i) muskrat a large rat-like animal a large musk deer (Algonquian: musquash)
(j) woodchuck a north American goat a north American (Algonquian: otchek) marmot
8. 从下面的逆构词确定本来项目的形式。
(a) asset: ______ (b) burgle: ______ (c) enthuse: ______ (d) greed: ______ (e) hush: ______ (f) automate: ______
(g) donate: ______ (h) escalate: ______ (i) homesick: ______ (j) peddle: ______ (k) diagnose: ______ (l) tuit: ______
(m) amusing: ______ (n) loaf: ______
(o) self-destruct：______ (p) attrit: ______ (q) hairdress: ______ (r) emote: ______ (s) drowse: ______ (t) frivol: ______
9. 确定下列词语的直接语源。（例如，\的直接语源是法语，尽管它更远的来源是拉丁语。）
(a) air: ______
(b) barbecue: ______ (c) bungalow: ______ (d) cola: ______ (e) gusto: ______ (f) Babel: ______ (g) buffalo: ______ (h) cocoa: ______ (i) costume: ______ (j) ill: ______ (k) mule: ______ (l) decreed: ______ (m) revolution: ______ (n) benevolent: ______ (o) lie: ______ (p) topic: ______ (q) subject: _____ (r) theme: ______ (s) wind: ______ (t) datum: ______
10. 把下列词语进行分类，分出借词（LW）、混合借词（LB）、转移借词（LS）、翻译借词（LT）：
booby trap, coconut, loanword, monk, firewater, free verse, war paint, yankee.
11. 如果有两个词缀-ly，一个生成形容词，另一个附在形容词后生成副词，我们能找到同时包含这两个词缀的词吗？
12. 从下列词语中列出后面能加-s的名词。
epiphany, foot, hat, house, kitchen, ox, phenomenon, region, sheep, tomato
13. 有没有这样的词缀，能附加在动词后面，不会产生或没有很特殊的意义，而且不会改变动词的类别？
转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/0823035.html2. a. irremovable m. dissyllabic b. informal n. abnormal
c. impracticable o. unworkable d. insensible p. unwritten e. intangible q. unusual f. illogical r. unthinkable g. irregular s. inhuman
h. disproportionate t. irrelevant i. ineffective u. uneditable j. inelastic v. immobile k. inductive w. illegal l. irrational x. indiscreet
3. 既然把语素定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位，那么它同时涉及了语言单位的语法方面和语义方面。一个语素可能就是一个音位，如I（我）；但是一个语素通常不是一个音位，如pig(猪)，整个单词是一个语素，也就是说pig是具独立的自由语素，但是音位是/p/, /I/和/g/。
4. 这段话中包含的功能词有：she, was, a, and, when, she, for, she, was, past, of, her, were, in, but, this, and, as, she, a, that, from, of, would, to, her, a, of, that, had, over, she, would, the, it, on, her, and, it和the。整段文章共有85个单诩词。其中功能词有40个。所以功能词在这段文章中所占的比例是40/85≈47%
5. (a) 布龙菲尔德想把book, books, 或者do, does, did, done这样的词自主理成同一个词的不同形式，而不是看作不同的词。但另一方面，他又主张把John's hat 中的 John's当作一个词。同样the boy's (hat)也只是一个词。由此我们可以看出布龙菲尔德对词的定义，是想要用同样的标准来涵盖不同的语言单位。
（b）像和这样的语法冠词，传统认为是跟所修饰的中心语不同的词。但是布龙菲尔德不这样看，具体观点参看（a）。 （c）因此，在定义词的范围时，还考虑了语法标准。例如，the king of England's或者the man I saw yesterday这样一些用作前修饰的成分，布龙菲尔德把它们作为独立的长词处理。其实这种修饰词，是降级短语，根本就是不词。 6.
(a) bash：(b)at + m(ash) (b) smash: (sm)ack + m(ash)
(c) glimmer: (g)leam + sh(immer) (e) clash: (cl)ap + cr(ash)
(f) flare: (fl)ame + gl(immer) (g) brunch: (br)eakfast + l(unch) (h) motel: (mo)tor + ho(tel)
(i) transistor: (trans)fer + res(ister) (j) medicare: (medi)cal + (care) (k) workaholic: (work) + alco(holic) (l) spam: (sp)iced + h(am)
(m) telethon: (tele)phone + mara(thon) (n) aerobicise: (aerobi)cs + exer(cise) (o) chunnel: (ch)uckle + sn(ort) (p) chortle: (ch)uckle + sn(ort) (q) bit: (b)inary + dig(it)
(r) modem: (mo)dulator + (dem)odulator (s) guestimate: (guess) + es(timate) (t) threepeat: (three) + re(peat)
7. 确定第一栏中词的正确历史语源，并在第二栏或第三栏中划出正确的单词。
（a）hangnail （由agnail, angnail变化而来） aching nail
（b）female （中古英语：femel, femelle） a male's companion （c）（中古英语：jardin almande） garden almond
（d）shamefaced （由asparagus 变化而来） bound by shame （e）Jordan almond（中古英语：jardin almande garden almond （f）sparrowgrass （由asparagus变化而来） a genus of herbs （g）belfre（中古英语：berfrey） bell tower
（h）bridegroom （中古英语：bridegome） a man is just, or about to be married （i）muskrat（阿尔冈琴语系：musquash） a large rat-like animal
（j）woodchuck （阿尔冈琴语系：otchek） a north American marmot
8. (a) asset: (assets) (b) burgle: (burglar)
(c) enthuse: (enthusiasm) (d) greed: (greedy) (e) hush: (husht)
(f) automate: (automation) (g) donate: (donation) (h) escalate: (escalator)
(i) homesick: (homesickness) (j) peddle: (peddler)
(k) diagnose: (diagnosis) (l) tuit: (intuition) (m) amusing: (amuse) (n) loaf: (loafer)
(o) self-destruct：(self-destruction) (p) attrit: (attrition)
(q) hairdress: (hairdresser) (r) emote: (emotion) (s) drowse: (drowsy) (t) frivol: (frivolous)
9. (a) air: 中世纪英语 (b) barbecue: 美洲西班牙 (c) bungalow: 北印度语 (d) cola: 源自非洲语言 (e) gusto: 西班牙语 (f) Babel: 圣经
(g) buffalo: 意大利语 (h) cocoa: 西班牙语 (i) costume: 法语 (j) ill: 中世纪英语
(k) mule: 中世纪英语 (l) decreed: 拉丁语
(m) revolution: 中世纪英语 (n) benevolent: 中世纪英语 (o) lie: 中世纪英语 (p) topic: 拉丁语
(q) subject: 中世纪英语 (r) theme: 中世纪英语 (s) wind: 中世纪英语 (t) datum: 拉丁语
10. 借词 混合借词 转移借词 翻译借词
monk booby trap yankee firewater loanword coconut free verse war paint 11. 不能。
* friendilily * timelily * ghostlily
13. -ed表示一般过去时: He walked home. -s表示一般现在时: He walks home. -ing表示进行体: He is walking home.
转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/0823035_2.html 第四章 句法（syntax）问题和练习
1. 给下列术语下定义：
范畴 一致关系 组合关系 聚合关系
直接成分分析法 向心结构 离心结构 深层结构 表层结构 成分统制 管辖和约束理论 主位 述位 交际动力 概念功能 人际功能 语篇功能
2. 了解符号和符号之间的关系，如组合关系和聚合关系，为什么是重要的？ 3. IC分析法的使用标准是什么？
4. 在哪些方面IC分析法比传统分析法更好？ 5. IC分析法有哪些问题？
6. 标准理论中为什么要引入次语类？
7. 表层结构怎样才能成为独立负责语义解释的结构？ 8. 联系汉语的反身代词\自己\讨论乔姆斯基的约束理论。 9. 在什么意义上说用主位和述位分析句子是功能主义的？
10. 韩礼德是怎样把语言执行的功能跟语言结构、系统联系起来的？
答 案
2. 由于能指和所指之间的关系是任意的，一个符号的价值不能由它自身来决定。要知道符号的价值或地位，语言学家就必须知道那些跟它一起出现的符号以及那些能够用来替换它的符号。一起出现的符号之间的关系就叫做组合关系，彼此能够相互替换的符号之间的关系叫做聚合关系。
3. 在IC分析法中使用的标准就是替换：一个由若干个词组成的序列能否被单个的词替换，同时整个结构保持不变。例如：Poor John ran away中，poor John能被 John替换、ran away能被ran替换而不改变结构。但是 poor John ran不能被 John或者其他任何单个的词替换而不改变结构。
4. 在传统分析中，一般把句子看作若干个前后相接的单词的序列，好像句子只有一个线性结构。可是IC分析法强调句子的层级结构，认为句子里的词首先构成词组。这样句子的内在结构可以清楚地显示出来，因此用IC分析法可以把某些歧义的结构体揭示出来。
5. 二分法和不连续直接成分造成了一些技术上的困难。但是主要的问题是有些结构的歧义不能用IC分析法揭示出来，例如：the love of God，用树形图和加标签法，都只有一种分析，但是 God这个词跟love有两种不同的关系，即或者是主语，或者是宾语。
6. 标准理论中引进次语类就是把名词、动词等分小类，用\± Common]（[± 普通]）、[± Count]（[± 可数]）[± Animate]（[± 有生]）、[± 人类]）、[± Abstract] （[± 抽象]）\等特征给动词加上标记。引进次语类是为了确保生成合语法的句子，防止生成不合法的句子，如进次语类是为了确保生成合语法的句子，防止生成不合语法的句子，如防止\boy elapsed. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously\这些句子的生成。但这不是一件容易的工作。例，怎么解释\是合语法的，而\是不合法的。
7. 引进语迹理论，表层结构就能成为独立负责语义解释的结构。也就在说，任何成分发生移位后，在原来的位置上会留下语迹，在树形图上这个语迹用字母t来表示。通过语迹，我们在表层结构上就能获得有关潜在于词语间句法联系之下的深层结构信息，例如被动语态中
的主语是逻辑宾语。
8. 乔姆斯基的约束理论看来不能解释汉语中反身代词\自己\的用法，有些时候，\自己\不能在管辖范围里受约束，甚至不能像乔姆斯基在最新模式中提出的那样在相关的局部语域里受约束。这可能是因为\自己\不是一个真正的反身代词，但也可能可以用语义、语用的方法来解释\自己\，而这是乔姆斯基的纯句法方法所不能解决的。
9. 我们说用主位和述位来分析句子是功能主义的。这是因为主位和述位的区分必须跟句子组成成分的意义方面有关，而不是跟形式方面有关。它们跟所传达的信息有关，是已知信息还是新信息，是比较重要的信息还是不太重要的信息。与之相反，用主语和调语来分析句子是形式主义的，例如：在区分格的语言中，主语要用主格形式，谓语动词的形式在某些范畴上要跟主语保持一致。
10. 在韩礼德看来，概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能这三种功能对应于三种结构或系统。概念功能体现为小句再现经验时的及物性系统；及物性系统一共包括六种过程：物质过程、心理过程、关系过程、行为过程、言语过程、存在过程。动作者，就是所谓的逻辑主语，是物质过程中一个重要的参与者。人际功能体现为小句作为交流时的语气系统；语气系统可以分成两个主要部分：语气和剩余成分。语气又包括两部分，其中一部分是主语，另一部分是限定成分。语篇功能体现为小句作为信息时的主位结构。主位结构中的主要成分是主位和述位，主位是信息的出发点，或者是小句关注的中心，而述位是对主位的发展、陈述。 -
转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/0118953.html 问题和练习
1. 定义下列术语：
发音语音学 协同发音
浊音音质 宽式音标和严式音标 辅音 音位 元音 音位变体 发音方法 区别特征 发音部位 超音段
2. 回答下列问题：
1) 哪些器官参与了发音？
2) 辅音的描写和元音的描写有哪些不同？ 3) 音系学语音学有哪些联系又有哪些区别？ 4) 什么是同化？
3. 描写下列英语语音: 1) [σ] ______ 2) [∫] ______ 3) [η] ______ 4) [d] ______ 5) [p] ______ 6) [k] ______ 7) [l] ______
8) [I] ______ 9) [u:] ______ 10) [ο] ______
4. 在英语的一些方言中，下列词含有不同的元音，如音标所示：
A B C
bite [bΛIt] bide [baId] tie [taI] rice [rΛIs] rise [raIz] by [baI] type [tΛIp] bribe [braIb] sigh [saI] wife [wΛIf] wives [waIvz] die [daI] tyke [tΛIk] time [taIm] nine [naIn] tile [taIl] tire [taIr] writhe [raIσ]
1) A栏和B栏中词的词尾可以分出多少类语音？ 2) C栏与A、B栏中的词有何不同？
3) [ΛI]和[aI]是处于互补分布吗？给出你的理由。 4) life和lives的语音表达是什么？ 5) 下列词的语音表达是什么？ a．trial [ ] b. bike [ ] c. lice [ ] d. fly [ ] e. mine [ ]
6) 说明能够联系上述词的音位表达和语音表达的规则。
5. 英语规则动词过去时形式的规则是什么? 收集数据并说明这些规则。 - 转自[英美者]-英语专业网http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/6343337745077.html
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