写作基础知识及练习WRITING-week 1& 2 南京廖华答案网

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Writing Task I: 主题句

****What is a topic sentence?

****The two parts of a topic sentence--------topic and controlling idea **** A topic sentence should be neither too narrow nor too specific. **** A concluding sentence serves three purposes

a. It signals the end of the paragraph. (Use an end-of-paragraph signal such as “In conclusion”, “In summary”, “Finally” etc.)

b. It summarizes the main points of the paragraph.

c. It gives a final comment on your topic and leaves the reader with the most important ideas to think about.

Driving on freeways requires skill and alertness.

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.

Registering for college classes can be a frustrating experience for new students.

Model 1: Paragraph structure

Gold

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes, Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty, but also for its use. Hurricanes

Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power. These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their winds can reach velocities of seventy-five miles per hour or more. Furthermore, the strong winds and heavy rainfall that accompany them can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours. The energy that is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy consumed by mankind throughout the world in one year.

Famous School “Failures”

Albert Einstein, one of the world’s geniuses, failed his university entrance

examinations on his first attempt. William Faulkner, one of America’s noted writers, never finished college because he could not pass his English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered one of the masters of the English language, had to have special tutoring in English during elementary school. These few examples show that failure in school does not always predict failure in life. Synonyms

Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same emotional meaning. For example, the words “stingy” and “frugal” both mean “careful with money”. However, to call a person stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive connotation. Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny, and aggressive, but not pushy. Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not really synonyms at all.

PRACTICE 1: Recognizing topic sentences:

Remember, the topic sentence indicates the main idea of a paragraph and is the most general statement in the paragraph.

Step 1 Decide which of the following sentences is the topic sentence of the paragraph. Step 2 Write TS on the line next to that sentence.

Step 3 Decide what order the supporting sentences should be in and number them 1,2, 3 and 4.

Paragraph 1

_______ a. Next, add antifreeze to your windshield washer fluid; otherwise, the fluid will freeze and possibly break the container.

_______ b. First, put on snow tires if you plan to drive on snowy, icy roads very often.

_______ c. Driving in winter, especially on snowy, icy roads, can be less troublesome if

you take a few simple precautions.

_______d. Finally, it is also a good idea to carry tire chains, a can of spray to unfreeze door locks and a windshield scraper in your car when driving in winter weather.

_______e. Second, check the amount of antifreeze in your radiator and add more if necessary.

Paragraph 2

________ a. Furthermore, researchers are continuing to work on the development of an

efficient, electrically powered automobile.

________ b. Researchers in the automobile industry are experimenting with different types of engines and fuels as alternatives to the conventional gasoline engines.

________ c. One new type of engine, which burns diesel oil instead of gasoline, has been available for several years.

________ d. Finally, several manufacturers are experimenting with methanol, which is

a mixture of gasoline and methyl alcohol, as an automobile fuel.

________ e. A second type is the gas turbine engine, which can use fuels made from gasoline, diesel oil, kerosene, other petroleum distillates, or methanol.

Paragraph 3

_________ a. Later on, people began to write on pieces of leather, which were rolled into scrolls.

_________ b. In the earliest times, people carved or printed messages on rocks.

_________ c. In the Middle Ages, heavy paper called parchment was used for writing; books were laboriously copied by hand.

_________ d. With the invention of the printing press in the middle of the fifteenth century, the modern printing industry was born.

_________ e. Some form of written communication has been used throughout the centuries.

Paragraph 4

_________ a. If there had been a big storm on the day of a baby’s birth, the baby might

have been named Thunder Cloud.

_________ b. American Indian names are very descriptive, for Indians were usually named for a physical attribute, for an occurrence in nature, or for an animal.

_________ c. Gray Eagle, Red Dog, Big Bear and Spotted Wolf are examples of Indians named after animals.

_________ d. Indians with distinctive physical characteristics might be given such names as Big Foot or Crooked Leg.

Paragraph 5

_________ a. For one thing, individual I. Q. score vary considerably.

_________ b. Many experts also question whether I. Q. scores are related to intelligence.

_________ c. Furthermore, most psychologists agree that intelligence tests are biased in favor of middle-class children.

_________ d. The validity of standardized intelligence tests is being seriously questioned by educators and psychologists.

_________ e. In fact, motivation seems to be just as important as intelligence in determining a person’s ability to learn.

PRACTICE 2: Identifying the parts of a topic sentence 1. Driving in Tokyo requires nerves of steel.

2. Driving in Tokyo requires an aggressive attitude.

3. Living in a dormitory helps foreign students improve their English faster. 4. Beijing is well-known for its many tourist attractions.

5. Communicating in English is a major problem for many graduate students. 6. In m y opinion, many television commercials are misleading. 7. A good topic sentence has two essential parts.

8. Owning a large automobile is quickly becoming an expensive luxury.

PRACTICE 3: Writing topic sentences

Write a topic sentence for each of the following topics. Remember to include both a topic (main idea) and a controlling idea. EXAMPLE

Topic: The effect(s) of television on children

Topic Sentence: Television is harmful to children because it teaches them violence as

a way of life.

or: Television retards a child’s reading ability. 1. The effect(s) of smoking on a person’s health. 2. The benefits of foreign travel.

3. The importance of college education for your field of study (engineering, medical technology, art, business etc.)

4. The cause(s) of a current problem in our country.

PRACTICE 4: Writing concluding sentences

Step 1 Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph. Step 2 Determine the main idea of each paragraph.

Step 3 Add a good concluding sentence to each. You may either paraphrase the

topic sentence or summarize the main points.

Step 4: Begin each concluding sentence with an end-of-paragraph signal.

Paragraph 1

You can reduce gas consumption in your car by careful driving and good maintenance. Don’t speed. Gas consumption is about 10 percent higher at 60 miles per hour than at 50 miles per hour and even greater at higher speeds. Avoid fast stops and starts because they wear your tires out in addition to using a lot of gas. Check your tire pressure often because underinflated tires reduce gas mileage considerably. Get your car tuned up regularly because an inefficiently operating engine results in inefficient fuel consumption___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Paragraph 2

Alternative energy resources are becoming increasingly attractive as the energy crisis becomes more severe. Solar heating systems, which use the sun’s radiation as a source of energy, are a promising alternative energy source. Nuclear power plants are already in operation in several parts of the country. Government and private industry are even investigating the possibility of capturing the power of ocean waves and tides for conversion into usable energy. Coal is once again becoming an acceptable fuel as the nation searches for solutions to the energy shortage. Even garbage is seen as a potential source of energy. In some communities, garbage is burned to heat buildings and light city.__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Paragraph 3

House construction in various parts of the world depends mainly on the availability of building materials. For example, the Eskimos, living in a treeless region of snow and ice, sometimes build temporary homes out of thick blocks of ice. People who live in deserts, on the other hand, use the most available material, mud or clay, which provides good insulation from the heat. In Northern Europe, Russia, and other areas of the world where forests are plentiful, people usually construct their homes out of wood, In the islands of the South Pacific, where there is a plentiful supply of bamboo and palm, people use these tough, fibrous plants to build their homes.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Paragraph 4

There are numerous everyday words in English that have come from other languages. Americans relaxing at home, for example, may put on kimonos, which is s Japanese word. Americans who live in a temperate climate may take an afternoon siesta on an outdoor patio, without even realizing that these are Spanish words. In their garden, they may enjoy the fragrance of jasmine flowers, a word that came into English from Persian. They may even relax on a chaise lounge while sipping a drink made with vodka, words of French and Russian origin, respectively. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Paragraph 5

There are two major differences between the European and American university systems. In European universities, students are not required to attend classes. In fact, professors in Germany generally do not know the names of the students enrolled in their courses. In the United States, however, students are required to attend all classes and may be penalized if they don’t. Furthermore, in the European system, there is usually just one comprehensive examination at the end of the students’ entire four or five years of study. In the American system, on the other hand, there are usually numerous quizzes, tests, and homework assignments, and there is almost always a final examination in each course at the end of the semester. _____________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

***********Writing Practice

A. Choose a topic from the list below and write a paragraph six to ten sentences in length

Step 1 Begin your paragraph with a good topic sentence and underline it. Step 2 Write several supporting sentences that explain or support the topic sentence

Step 3 Write a good concluding sentence and underline it Step 4 Check your paragraph before you hand it in

Topic Suggestions

Arranged marriages /Uncontrolled population growth/Computers, calculators, or machines in general/Left-handed people/The advantage of having a college education/Owning a car

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. B. Writing Under Pressure

Choose one of your best topics from Practice 3 and write a paragraph six to ten

sentences long on the subject of that sentence. Suggested Time Limits:

Writing Time------- 13 minutes Checking Time------ 2 minutes Total---15 minutes

WRITING TASK II: 在篇章或段落写作中，需特别注意所表达内容的连贯与一致，一份好的写作提纲可以帮你做到这一点。提纲中应包括：主题句，发展句和结尾句。试比较下面两个段落：

Model 1: Surviving Cancer

Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancer. In the early 1900s, few cancer patients had any hope of long-term survival. In the 1930s, less than one in five cancer victims lived more than five years. In the 1950s, the ratio was one in four. Currently, the ratio is down to one in three. The gain from one in four to one in three represents about 58,000 lives saved each year.

Model 2: Surviving Cancer

Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancer. In the early 1900s, few cancer patients had any hope of long-term survival. But because of advances in medical technology, progress has been made so that currently one in three cancer patients survive. It has been proven that smoking is a direct cause of lung cancer. However, the battle has not yet won. Although cures for some forms of cancer have been discovered, other forms of cancer are still increasing. Heart disease is also increasing.

PRACTICE 5: UNITY I

The following short essay has not been divided into paragraphs, but it should contain six: an introductory paragraph, four “body” paragraphs and a concluding paragraph.

Step 1 Read the entire essay once or twice

Step 2 Decide where each new paragraph should begin. (Where does the author begin to discuss a different topic?)

Step 3 Underline the first sentence of each paragraph.

Culture, Logic and Rhetoric

Logic, which is the basis of rhetoric, comes from culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric, therefore, is not universal either, but varies from culture to culture. The rhetorical system of one language is neither better nor worse than the rhetorical system of another language, but is different. English logic and English rhetoric, which are based on Anglo-European cultural patterns, are linear—that is, a good English paragraph begins with a general statement of its content and then carefully develops that statement with a series of specific illustrations. A good English paragraph may also use just the reverse sequence; it may state a whole series of examples and then

summarizes those examples in a single statement at the end of the paragraph. In either case, however, the flow of ideas occur in a straight line from the opening sentence to the last sentence. Furthermore, a well-structured English paragraph is never digressive. There is nothing that does not belong to the paragraph, and nothing that does not support the topic sentence. A type of construction found in Arabic and Persian writing is very different. Whereas English writers use a linear sequence, Arabic and Persian writers tend to construct a paragraph in a parallel sequence using many coordinators, such as and but. In English, maturity of style is often judged by the degree of subordination rather than by the degree of coordination. Therefore, the Arabic and Persian styles of writing, with their emphasis on coordination, seem awkward and immature to an English reader. Some Asian writers, on the other hand, use an indirect approach. In this kind of writing, the topic is viewed from a variety of angles. The topic is never analyzed directly; it is referred to only indirectly. Again, such a development in an English paragraph is awkward and unnecessarily vague to an English reader. Spanish rhetoric differs from English rhetoric in still another way. While the rules of English rhetoric require that every sentence in a paragraph relates directly to the central idea, a Spanish-speaking writer loves to fill a paragraph with interesting digressions. Although a Spanish paragraph may begin and end on the same topic, the writer often digresses into areas that are not directly related to the topic. Spanish rhetoric, therefore, does not follow the English rules of paragraph unity. In summary, a student who has mastered the grammar of English may still write poor papers unless the rhetoric of English is also mastered. Also, the student may have difficulty reading an essay written by the rules of English rhetoric unless (s)he understands the “logical” differences from those of his/her own native tongue.

Practice 6: Unity II

A Each of the following paragraphs breaks the rules of unity because it contains one or more sentences that do not directly support the topic sentence.

STEP 1 Locate and underline the topic sentence of each paragraph

STEP 2 Find the sentences that do not support the topic sentence and cross them out.

Paragraph 1

Tourism is the state of Hawaii’s leading industry. every year some 3.2 million tourist visit the islands. During the popular winter months, a planeload or shipload of tourists arrives every fifteen minutes. New hotels, new resorts, and new restaurants are being built every year to accommodate the increasing numbers of visitors. sugar cane and pineapples are also important industries in Hawaii.

Paragraph 2

The rapid increase in crime in Chicago is causing a great deal of concern to the city’s citizens. People are afraid to go out into the streets at night because they are afraid of being robbed or even killed. More and more families are moving out of the city into the suburbs because of the high crime rate. The chief of police was fired last month because of his inability to reduce crime. People are buying strong locks for their doors and installing heavy iron bars across their windows to prevent burglaries. Some citizens are even purchasing guns to protect themselves and their property. Indeed, it seems that the increase in crime is turning the average home in Chicago into a prison for its inhabitants.

Paragraph 3

The convenience and economy of small cars account for their popularity. They are easy to park quickly and take smaller parking spaces. Small cars are also a means of conserving energy because they use less gas than big cars. Small cars are inconvenient and uncomfortable on long trips, however, because of their limited passenger and trunk space. They are also more economical to operate and maintain, and they cost less. Because of all these advantages, the next car I buy is going to be an Econo-Midget.

B Each of the following paragraphs has not only two or more topic sentences but also irrelevant sentences.

STEP 1 Decide where each paragraph should be divided into two or more paragraphs. Underline the topic sentence of each.

STEP 2 Find the irrelevant sentences and cross them out.

Paragraph 1

The recent water shortage in California forced changes in Californians’ lifestyles. When water was rationed, Californians learned to conserve water. They didn’t water their lawns and gardens or wash their automobiles. Also, they took fewer showers and baths. The water shortage lasted two years. Californians also learned to recycle water. For example, they used the rinse water from their washing machines to water their houseplants and gardens. California’s agricultural industry was also severely affected by the water shortage. Because their water was also rationed, farmers planted fewer acres and had to plan their crops more carefully. Many farmers planted crops that required less water and reduced the number of crops that needed a lot of water. This eventually caused an increase in the price of food in supermarkets all over the country.

Paragraph 2

The United States and Canada will someday join the 95 percent of the world that uses the metric rather than the English system of measurement. No longer will North American schoolchildren have to memorize that there are 12 inches in a foot, 3 feet in a yard, 51/2 yards in a rod, 40 rods in a furlong, and 8 furlongs in a mile. Inches will become centimeters, pound swill become kilograms, quarts will become liters, and degree Fahrenheit will become degrees centigrade (also called Celsius). The English system of measurement has been used in English-speaking countries since about the year 1200. The conversion to the metric system will not be easy, however, and will require enormous amounts of money and time. Proponents of the change argue that it is necessary in order for North American products to compete in world markets with metric products. For example, every piece of machinery in every factory and every office will have to be replaced. Furthermore, every machine and tool that makes, repairs or supplies another piece of equipment will have to be changed. Not only every nut, bolt and screw, but also every wrench, drill and screwdriver will have to be replaced, as any auto mechanic who has tried to fix an imported car with a set of American tools realizes. Therefore, although the United States and Canada are committed to “going metric”, it will not happen next week or even next year. Because of the magnitude of the problems that metric conversion will involve, the change will have to be gradual and , above all, carefully planned.

***** 一篇作文的提纲就象一张建筑图纸，写作者可以依据这份提纲，写出既完整又符合逻辑的文章或段落来。提纲的写作一开始很可能既难又无从下手，但万事开头难。一旦熟悉了提纲的写作，你就会发现你自己的文章也会越写越快，越写越好。有了一份好的提纲，也就等于完成了作文写作的75%。

提纲中应包括一个完整的主题句，以及发展这一主题所需要的论据，如事实、事例、和统计数字等等。 Example 1:

Topic Sentence: Learning to outline will improve your writing for three reasons. Evidence: A. It will help you organize your ideas. B. It will help you write more quickly. C. It will help you improve your grammar.

Concluding Sentence: For these three reasons---improved organization, speed, and grammar—learning to outline is well worth the effort.

下面这篇文章就是依据上述提纲完成的。

Learning to outline will improve your writing for three reasons. First of all, it will

help you organize your ideas. Specifically, an outline will ensure that you won’t include any irrelevant ideas, that you won’t leave out any important points, and that your supporting sentences will be in logical order. Second, learning to write an outline will help you write more quickly. It may take some practice at first, but once you become used to outlining your ideas before you start to write. Preparing an outline is 75% of the work. The actual writing becomes easier because you don’t have to worry about what you are going to say; you already have a well-organized plan to follow. Finally, your grammar will improve because you will be able to concentrate on it, not on your thoughts or organization. Improved organization, speed, and grammar make learning to outline well worth the effort.

For these three reasons—improved organization, speed, and grammar—learning to outline is well worth the effort.

Practice 7: Making Outlines Parallel

Rewrite each of these outlines to make the support part parallel in form.

1. Topic Sentence: San Francisco is famous for its tourist attractions. Evidence: A. Golden Gate Park is very famous. B. Chinatown.

C. Fisherman’s Wharf attracts hundreds of tourists. D. Riding the cable cars.

Concluding Sentence: For these four attractions alone, San Francisco is well worth a

visit.

2. Topic sentence: Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.

Evidence: A. It is beautiful.

B. Useful to science and industry.

Concluding Sentence: In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

3. Topic sentence: Some of the world’s most successful men had trouble in school. Evidence: A. Albert Einstein failed his university entrance exams on his first

attempt.

B. William Faulkner’s F’s in English.

C. Special tutoring necessary for Winston Churchill.

Concluding Sentence: These few examples show that failure in school does not always predict failure in life.

Practice 8: Simple Paragraph Outlining I

Turn back to Practice 6A and prepare a simple outline for each paragraph. Make sure that the support parts of your outlines are parallel.

Practice 9: Simple Paragraph Outlining II

Choose any three of the topic sentences below and write a simple outline for a paragraph for each of them. Follow the outline form in the model. Your supporting ideas can be reasons, examples or simple facts.

1. Students who both work and attend school lead busy lives. 2. Technology is making people lazy.

3. Technology is making our lives easier.

4. A good doctor(teacher, scientist, businessperson, athlete) has two(three, four, five) important qualities.

5. Pollution is a growing threat to life on earth. *******Writing Practice

A. Choose one of the suggested topics listed below and write a paragraph ten to fifteen sentences in length. Be sure your paragraph is unified.

Step 1 Write a simple outline that has all the parts (topic sentence, supporting ideas, and a concluding sentence). Make sure it is parallel in form. Step 2 Write your paragraph from your outline. Add enough sentences in the support parts to make your main points clear,

Step 3 Underline your topic sentence and your concluding sentence

Step 4 Check your paragraph before you hand it in both your outline and your paragraph.

Topic Suggestions

a. Choose a famous person whom you admire. explain why you admire that person, naming several qualities that make the individual admirable. If possible, cite instances when this person displayed these qualities.

b. The goals you will have achieved when you are forty years old. Discuss at least three

different areas (family, job, house, finances)

c. The living arrangements (a college dormitory, a room with an American family, an apartment with some friends, a room in your parents’ home) that, in your opinion, is

the best for a person in your particular position.

B. Writing Under Pressure

Choose one of the topics from Practice 9 and write a paragraph about it. Make a quick outline before you begin.

Outlining Time--------3 minutes Writing Time----------10 minutes Checking Time---------2 minutes Total---15 minutes

WRITING TASK III 过渡词与篇章的连接

一个好的段落或一篇好的文章必须在表达形式上和意义上连贯一致。过渡词就可以起到这样的作用。比较下面两个段落，并找出带有过渡词的部分。

Paragraph 1:

A difference among the world’s seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different climate zones. The Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle east. There are reasons for this. In warm climates, water evaporates rapidly. The concentration of salt is greater. The surrounding land is dry and does not contribute much fresh water to dilute the salty sea water. In cold climate zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.

Paragraph 2:

Another difference among the world’s seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, the concentration of salt is greater. Second, the surrounding land is dry and, consequently, does not contribute much fresh water to dilute the salty sea water. In cold climate zones, on the other hand, water evaporates slowly. Furthermore, the runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.

常用的连接词

表关系连接词并列连词从句连词其他关联词

表递进 furthermore and another (＋名词） moreover an additional (＋名词） in addition

表转折 on the other hand but although in spite of (＋名词） however yet though despite(＋名词） in contrast even though whereas while 表选择 otherwise or if unless

引出事例 for example an example of (＋名词） for instance such as(＋名词） e.g. 重述 i.e.

表结尾 in conclusion in summary to conclude to summarize

连接词按其作用可分为上述四类，用法如下：

1．连接词如however, therefore, furthermore, for example, on the other hand, in addition, still, otherwise的用法：可连接两个简单句，多用逗号或分号隔开，也可放在句首、句中、句末，后加逗号。

I dislike mushrooms; therefore, I never eat them.

Mushrooms are good for you; however, I never eat them. Therefore, I never eat them.

On the other hand, mushrooms are good for you. I, therefore, never eat them.

Mushrooms, on the other hand, are good for you. I never eat them, therefore.

如连接词仅为一个单词，有时亦可省略， I therefore never eat them.

2. 并列连词and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so用来连接简单句，通常用逗号隔开；如 Mushrooms are good for you, but I dislike them. I dislike mushrooms, so I never eat them.

3. 从句连词如because, after, since, as, although, if, when 用来连接主从复合句，

如从句在先，用逗号隔开；如主句在先，可不用逗号； Although mushrooms are good for you, I dislike them. I dislike mushrooms although they are good for you.

4. 介词短语和修饰词如because of, due to, in spite of , another, additional, final etc. 不涉及单独的标点符号规则

I dislike mushrooms because of a bad experience I once had. Another reason I dislike mushrooms is their rubbery consistency.

Practice 10: Recognizing Transition Signals

Step 1 Circle all of the transition signals in the following paragraphs. There are at least ten in each.

Step 2 Punctuate the transition signals if necessary

Paragraph 1

Genetic research has produced both exciting and frightening possibilities. Scientists are now able to create new forms of life in the laboratory due to the development of gene splicing. On one hand the ability to create life in the laboratory could greatly benefit mankind. For example because insulin is very expensive to obtain from natural sources scientists have developed a method to manufacture it inexpensively in the laboratory. Another beneficial application of gene splicing is in agriculture. Scientists foresee the day when new plants will be developed using nitrogen from the air instead of from fertilizer therefore food production could be increased. In addition entirely new plants could be developed to feed the world’s hungry people.

Not everyone is excited about gene splicing however. Some people feel that it could have terrible consequences. A laboratory accident for example might cause an epidemic of an unknown disease that could wipe out humanity. As a result of this controversy the government has made rules to control genetic experiments. Still many people feel that these rules are not strict enough even though the scientific community may feel that they are too strict.

Paragraph 2

The “women’s lib” movement toward greater equality for women has produced some permanent changes in the vocabulary of English. The first change is that new words have been added. The words “feminist” “sexist” and “male chauvinist” for example became common during the past ten years or so. Another new word is the title Ms which is often used in place of both Miss and Mrs. A second change is that sexist titles of many job occupations have been naturalized. A chairman is now a “chairperson”, a businessman is a “businessperson” and a salesman is a “salesperson”.

Moreover a mailman is now a “mail carrier” and an airline stewardess is now a “flight attendant.” Finally attempts to give equal treatment to masculine and feminine pronouns in English have led to the search for a new pronoun form to replace he (as he/she ors/he) when referring to the neutral nouns such as the student. In my opinion some of the new words such as Ms are quite useful: you can use Ms to address a woman when you don’t know if she is married. On the other hand the lack of a clear neutral pronoun can lead to awkward sentence construction.

Practice 11: Choosing Transition Signals

Step 1 Choose the transition signal that best shows the relationship between the sentences in each group from the choices given in parentheses. Write the signal in the space.

Step 2 Add punctuation and change capital letters to small letters if necessary

Example A recent article in Era magazine suggested ways to reduce inflation. The article suggested that the president reduce the federal budget; furthermore, it suggested that the government reduce federal, state and local taxes. (however, in contrast, furthermore)

1. The same article said that the causes of inflation were easy to find ________ the cure for inflation was not so easy to prescribe.(however, for example, therefore)

2. Era also suggested that rising wages were one of the primary causes of inflation __________ the government should take action to control wages. (however, therefore, for example)

3. In physics, the weight of an object is the gravitational force with which the Earth attracts it _________ if a man weighs 150 pounds, this means that the Earth pulls him down with a force of 150 pounds. (moreover, therefore, for example)

4. The farther away from earth a person is, the less the gravitational force of the Earth _______ a man weighs less when he is 50,000 miles from earth than when he is only 5,000 miles away. (in conclusion, therefore, however)

5. A “tsunami” is a tidal wave produced by an earthquake on the ocean floor. The waves are very long and low in open water, but when they get close to land, they encounter friction because of the shallow water __________ the waves increase in height and can cause considerable damage when they finally reach land. (on the other hand, as a result, in conclusion)

********* Writing Practice

A. Choose one of the topics below and write one paragraph about it. Use transition signals in appropriate places

Step 1 Write a brief outline with a topic sentence, supporting points, and a concluding sentence

Step 2 Decide where transition signals would be appropriate to connect your supporting points and conclusion, and write them in the margin at the left of your outline.

Step 3 Write your paragraph. Circle your transition words. Step 4 Check your paragraph.

Topic Suggestions

Space exploration/ A current fad or fashion/Movies/The drug-abuse problem/Test-tube babies

B. Choose one of the topic sentences below and write a paragraph that develops

it. Use transition signals to connect the supporting sentences smoothly. You may use the transition signals suggested for each topic, or you may use others not listed. Make a quick outline before you begin.

1. Foreign travel is very educational.

The first reason/Another reason/In addition/Consequently 2. Last week, I witnessed a terrible accident. First/After that/Next/Finally

3. Being an identical twin can be a lot of fun.

For example/Furthermore/As a result/In conclusion 4. Some people enjoy solitude.

As an example/Moreover/On the other hand/Therefore

Outlining Time---------3 minutes Writing Time---------10 minutes Checking Time--------2 minutes Total---15 minutes

Writing Task IV 段落表达的连贯性

要保持段落表达的连贯性，除了使用关联词，还可以采用下面的两种方法：时间顺序和依重要性排列。

时间顺序：按照时间顺序来组织一个段落或篇章，需要注意以下两点：第一，依事件的发生或步骤来叙述；第二，用时间过渡词来标明这一顺序。分析下面的两个例段，找出标明时间顺序的词。

Model 1 Chronological Order

The Evolution of Computers

In the relatively short span of twenty-five years, there has been an incredible evolution in the size and capabilities of computers. Today, computers smaller than the tip of your fingernail have the same capabilities as the room-sized machines of twenty-five years ago. The first computers were developed around 1945. They were so large that they require special air-conditioned rooms. About twenty years later, in the 1960s, desk-sized computers were developed. This represented a gigantic advance. Before the end of that same decade, however, a third generation of computers, which used simple integrated circuits and which were even smaller and faster, had appeared. In 1971, the first microprocessor, less than one square centimeter in size, was developed. Today, electronic engineers predict that even smaller and more sophisticated computers will be on the market before then end of this decade.

A Neutralization Experiment

To perform a neutralization experiment, proceed in the following manner. First, measure out about 2 cc of laboratory NaOH solution. Second, pour the solution into a small casserole. Next, add portions of HC1 solution, stirring after each addition until the solution is acid when tested with litmus paper. Then, place the casserole containing the solution on a wire gauze over a Bunsen burner and heat it until the solution begins to boil. When it does, reduce the size of the flame immediately and allow the solution to boil gently. As it approaches dryness, sputtering may occur. At this point, cover the casserole loosely with a watch-glass. Then, hold the casserole above the flame and move it back and forth until no further water vapor is expelled. Finally, allow the dish and residue to cool.

Practice 12: 时间过渡词 Sentence Connectors

Clause Connectors Coordinators subordinators

Others

first(second, third etc.) next, last, finally first of all after that

since then

before after while until as soon as

the first (＋noun) the second before the in the year since the

Add appropriate chronological transition signals to the following essay and punctuate them. Consult the list in the preceding table or use others with which you are familiar.

How to Reduce the Danger of Smoking

The Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) has outlined some steps to take some of the danger out of smoking for those people who are unable to quit smoking outright. _________ choose a cigarette with less tar and nicotine to reduce your intake of these pollutants. _________ don’t smoke your cigarette all the way down. Smoke halfway, and you will inhale only about 40 percent of the total tar and nicotine. Remember, 60 percent of these substances is contained in the last half of the cigarette. ________ take fewer draws on each cigarette---that is, reduce the number of puffs on each cigarette. This will cut down on your smoking. _______ reduce your inhaling. Don’t open your lungs by inhaling deeply. Take short, shallow puffs _______ smoke fewer cigarettes each day. This may be the most difficult step of all. However, just follow these directions.

1. Pick a time of day to start, and don’t smoke before that time. 2. Don’t think of it as cutting down; think of it as postponing.

3. Carry your cigarette in a different pocket, or put them in a different place so that you can’t reach for them automatically.

_______ think about the terrible diseases you are opening yourself up to each time you smoke a cigarette. ________ if you follow each of these steps without cheating, you should be able to at least control the number of cigarettes you smoke daily. who knows, this might be the beginning of the end—of your smoking, that is.

在以时间顺序发展的段落中，主题句往往会用the development of, the growth of, the evolution of表明时间的顺序, 在描述过程发展的段落中，这一过程经常会在

主题句中提及。

Practice 13 Chronological Topic Sentence

Step 1 Put a check in the space to the left of every topic sentence suggesting that a chronological paragraph will follow.

Step 2 Circle the word or words in the sentences you have checked that indicate chronological order.

Example _______ In the past twenty-five years, developments in the field of electronics

have revolutionized the computer industry.

________ 1. The worst day in my life was the day I left my family and my friends to come to the United States.

_________2. In my opinion, television programs can be divided into three types: excellent, mediocre, and poor.

_________3. The life cycle of the Pacific salmon is one of nature’s most fascinating phenomena.

_________4. Gold is prized for two important characteristics.

_________5. In the event of an earthquake, you should follow certain procedures in order to minimize the danger.

_________6. The tensions that led to the race riots of 1964 had been building for years.

_________7. The election of a U.S. President is a very long and complex process.

_________8. Smoking damages not only your lungs. but also your heart.

_________9. There are three reasons I believe that women should be drafted along with men.

________10. The rise of terrorists groups in the past few years is an indication

of the spread of anarchistic tendencies in the world.

Practice 13: Outlining a Chronological Paragraph Model: Outline for The Evolution of Computers

Transition Signals: In the relatively short span of twenty-five years, there has been an incredible evolution in the size and capabilities of computers.

A. First computers were so large that they required special air-conditioned rooms.

B. Desk-sized computers were developed.

C. A third generation of computers using integrated circuits appeared.

D. Microprocessors less than one square centimeter in size were developed.

E. Even smaller and more sophisticated computers will be on the market soon.

Outline the paragraph “How to reduce the danger of smoking”. Include only the topic sentence, the six main steps, and the concluding sentence in your outline. Do not write every sentence. Put the transition signals in parentheses to the left of each supporting point, as in the example above.

******* Writing Practice

A. Choose a topic from the suggestions listed below.

Step 1 Write an outline, listing the main steps or main events that you will explain

in your paragraph.

Step 2 Add chronological transition signals at appropriate points in the left margin

of your outline.

Step 3 Write your paragraph from your outline.

Topic Suggestions a. Process Topics

How to study for a test, take a test, or find a book in the library. How to cure the hicoughs, a hangover, “the blues,” “the blanks” How to put on makeup, put in contact lenses

How to make a perfect cup of coffee, cup of tea etc. b. Historical Topics

Use some of all of the following data to write a brief history of manned space flights.

Manned Space Flights

Crew/Date of Mission

Mission Name Comments

Yuri Gagarin(April 12, 1961)

John Glenn. Jr. (February 20, 1962)

Aleksei Leonov(March 18, 1965)

4 Russian cosmonauts(January, 1969)

3 U.S.astronauts(July 20, 1969)

2 Russian cosmonauts and 3 U.S. astronauts (July, 1975)

John Young and Robert Crippen (April 12-15, 1981)

Vostok 1

Mercury-Atlas 6

Voskhod 2

Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5

Apollo-Saturn 11 Soyuz19 Apollo 18

Space Shuttle Columbia

First manned orbital flight

First American in orbit

First “space walk” (10 minutes)

First transfer of crew members from one spacecraft to another First landing on the moon

U.S.-U.S.S.R. joint flight. Crews linked up in space.

conducted experiments and shared meals.

First flight of a reusable space vehicle

依重要性而排列需注意两点： 1．最重要的一点放在第一或最后 2．用表明事件重要性的过渡词 Model 2: Order of Importance

The Causes of Inflation

Inflation is an economic condition in which prices for consumer goods increase, and the value of money or purchasing power decreases. There are three important causes of inflation. The first and most important cause maybe excessive government spending. For example, in order to finance a war or carry out social programs, the government may spend more money than it has received through taxes and other revenue, thus creating a deficit. In order to offset this deficit, the Treasury Department can simply expand the money supply by issuing more paper money to meet the debts of government. This increase in the money supply will cause the value of the dollar to automatically decrease. The second cause of inflation occurs when the money supply increases faster than the supply of goods. If people have more money, they will run out to buy popular goods like televisions and computers, for example, and a shortage will result. Industry will then produce more, at higher prices, to satisfy demand. Furthermore, if people think that the prices of popular goods are going up, they will buy and even borrow money at high interest rates to pay for them. Finally, if labor unions demand that workers’ wages be increased to cover the high cost of living, industry will meet this demand and add other costs of production on to consumers. In summary, all of these causes can create inflationary problems that can affect the welfare of a nation. However, of these three causes, excessive government spending may be the most important.

Practice 14: Topic Sentences for Order of Importance

Step 1 Put a check in the space to the left of every topic that suggests order

of importance organization.

Step 2 Circle the word or words in the checked sentences which indicate this.

Example ________ A political leader today must possess four important qualities. ________1. My twenty-first birthday was a day I will never forget.

________2. In terms of salary. power, and status, women are behind men in most occupations.

________3. Some meteorologists believe that another ice age is approaching. ________4. Living in a dormitory offers three advantages to a newly arrived foreign student.

5. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture their

own food.

ORDER OF IMPORTANCE: OUTLINING

An outline for an order of importance paragraph follows one of the two following forms:

Topic Sentence (Transition) A. The most important point (reason, factor, example, etc.) is ... (Transition) B. Next point (Transition) C. Next point (Transition) D. Final point Concluding sentence 如果将最重要的一点放在最后，则提纲如下 Topic Sentence (Transition) A. First point (Transition) B. Next point

(Transition) C. The most important point (reason, factor, example, etc.) is Concluding sentence

Practice 15: Outlining for Order of Importance

A. Write a simple outline for the Model paragraph in this section, “The causes of inflation,”. In the left margin, note the transition signals used, following the outlining example for “ The Evolution of Computers”

B. Write a simple outline for any two of the following topics. Follow the same directions as for A, above.

1. The problems of a foreign student in the United States

2. The qualities of a good teacher (student, wife, husband, friend) 3. The most important holidays in China

4. Important inventions in the twentieth century 5. Important discoveries in the field of medicine 6. Important developments in your major field

7. Important influences on your life (people or events or both)

Topic Suggestions

The traditional celebrations of Spring Festival in China

Your autobiography or the biography of a famous person The reasons for choosing your particular major field.

Writing Under Pressure

Choose a topic from either Group A or Group B below and write a paragraph on that subject. write a simple outline before you begin, using either chronological order or order of importance.

Group A---Order of Importance Group B---Chronological Order Why it is important to ________ a. ______learn English b. ______get a college education c. ______own an automobile d. ______earn a lot of money e. ______conserve energy f. ______reduce pollution g. ______stop smoking

Suggested limits:

Outlining Time----3 minutes Writing Time------10 minutes Checking Time----2 minutes Total------ 15 minutes

The happiest day in your life The unhappiest day in your life A typical day in your life

A perfect day in your “ideal” life 31

Writing Task V:

在学习写作中，最常出现的问题就是没有足够的事实来支持主题句的发展，从而使文章读起来非常

空洞。如果在文章中加入一些事例、阐述、引用和数据，就会非常有说服力了。 Model 1: Concrete supporting details

World Refugees

Duc Tong knew that the voyage would be risky, but he also knew that he had no choice. If he and his family stayed in their country, there was little hope for their future. So one night he, his wife, and ten other members of his family boarded a small, rickety boat, taking with them only what they could carry, and set sail along with thirty-six other Vietnamese. Their voyage was a nightmare. Before they reached safety, they were attacked by two different groups of pirates, and during a terrible storm, their supplies were washed overboard. Eleven of the older people died, and the survivors were delirious from lack of food and water.(Illustrative Incident)

The rising tide of refugees around the world is rapidly becoming a flood. According to figures published by the United Nations, there are more than 6.2 million refugees and an additional 2.6 million people who are classified as “displaced persons”. That makes a total of nearly 9 million.(Statistics)

No corner of the Earth is without a refugee problem, although the African continent has so far produced the greatest number. Ethiopias, with its 1.6 million refugees, has produced three times as many refugees as Vietnam and Cambodia combined. The Middle East has its Palestinian and more recently, Afghan refugees. In the Western Hemisphere, Haiti, Cuba and the Central American countries of El Salvador and Guatemala are producing refugees by the thousands.(Examples)

The refugees present problems not only for themselves, but also for the countries that take them in. As Victor Palmieri, the U.S. coordinator for refugee affairs, has put it, “The worldwide refugee explosion is a massive tragedy in human terms and a growing crisis in financial terms for the countries bearing the burden.” (Quotations)

Model 2: Study the two models to see how examples and illustrative incidents

can be used to support a topic sentence

A. Language and Perception(Examples)

Although we all possess the same physical organs for perceiving the world---eyes for seeing, ears for hearing, noses for smelling, skins for feeling, and mouths for tasting---our perception of the world demand to a great extent on the language is like a pair of sunglasses through which we “see” the world. A classic example of the relationship between language and perception is the word snow. In the English language, there is only that one word to describe all of the possible kinds of snow. In Eskimo languages, however, there are as many as thirty-two different words for snow. For instance, the Eskimos have different words for falling snow, snow on the ground, snow packed as hard as ice, slushy snow, wind-driven snow, and weather and snow may have one word to express several concepts that are differentiated in English. For example, the ancient Aztec languages of Mexico used only one word to mean snow. Writing Technique Questions:

1. What is the main idea of this paragraph? Where is it stated? 2. How many supporting examples are given? 3. What transition signals introduce the examples?

B. Nonverbal Communication (Illustrative incidents)

Nonverbal communication, or “body language” is communication by facial expression, head or eye movements, hand signals, and body postures. It can be just as important to understanding as words are. Misunderstandings---often amusing but sometimes serious---- can arise between people from different cultures if they misinterpret non-verbal signals. Take, for example, the differences in meaning of a gesture very common in the United States: a circle made with the thumb and index finger. To an American, it means that everything is OK. To a Japanese, it means that you are talking about money. In France,, it means that something ids worthless, and in Greece, it is an obscene gesture. Therefore, an American could unknowingly offend a Greek by using that particular hand signal.

The following true incident illustrates how conflicting nonverbal signals can cause serious misunderstandings. While lecturing to his poetry class at Ain Shams University in Cairo, a British professor became so relaxed that he leaned back in his chair and revealed the bottom of his foot to the astonished class. Making such a gesture in Moslem society is the worst kind of insult. The next day the Cairo newspapers carried headlines about the student demonstration that resulted, and they denounced British arrogance and demanded that the professor be sent home. Writing Technique Questions

1. What is the main point of these two paragraphs? In which two places is it stated directly?

2. What examples are given to support the main point? 3. What story is told to support the main point?

4. What words and phrases are used to introduce the examples and the illustrative incidents?

5. Why do you think this article was divided into two paragraphs?

Writing Practice 16:

Explain a proverb by using examples. A stitch in time saves nine.

Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. A rolling stone gathers no moss.

Model 3: FIGURES AND STATISTICS

A. The Population time Bomb

The world’s population is growing at a geometric rate. It doubled from 1750 to 1900, a period of 150 years. It doubled again from 1900 to 1965, a period of only 65 years. At the current rate of increase, it is expected to double again by the year 2000, a period of only 35 years, according to a recent report published by the world health Organization of the United Nations. The world’s population in 1978 had reached 4.3 billion and is increasing at the rate of 70 million each year. By the end of this century, there will be 7 billion people on Earth.

B. Living Alone

America is becoming a society of “loners”. Since 1970, the number of Americans living alone has been increasing, according to a Census Bureau report. The number of men living alone has more than doubled in the last several years, and the number of women living by themselves is up 35 percent. Among people under the age of 25, the number of men living alone has nearly tripled since 1970, from 274,000 to 752,00, and the number of women has risen from 282,00 to 588,00. “There were 15.5 million people living alone in 1977,” the Census Bureau said. Although the number of men living by themselves has increased rapidly since 1970, most of those living alone are still women---64 percent of the total.

Writing Technique Questions

1. What are the topic sentences for these two paragraphs? 2. What is the source of both these reports? 3. Which statistics are the most significant?

用来表示数字信息的词：

Vocabulary

Example of Structure

rate

ratio (of X to Y) percent

percentage

geometric rate arithmetic rate

to double, triple, quadruple, etc

to increase/decrease four-fold, by one-half

to rise/fall by 20,00; by 6 percent (6%)

The rate of inflation has skyrocketed. The ratio of smokers to non-smokers was 3:2.

Twelve percent (or 12 percent) of the population is 55 or elder.

Only a small percentage of personal income should go toward housing.

The world population is increasing at a geometric rate.

The number of auto accidents has doubled. The number of computer companies has increased sevenfold.

By 1990, oceanic levels will rise by 2 percent.

Practice 17: Using Figures and Statistics

Complete the following essay by choosing the correct word from those given in parentheses and writing it in the blank. Refer to these two graphs for information.

The Hazards of Driving Small Cars

Small cars may be hazardous to your health, according to a recent study conducted by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The number of Americans dying in automobile accidents is ___________( increasing, decreasing, gaining, reducing) again after ____________(rising, falling, declining, inclining) sharply in 1974, when the national 55 mile per hour speed limit was imposed. Safety authorities warn that as drivers increasingly shift from fuel-saving smaller, lighter cars, the rise in the death toll will accelerate _________ (geometrically, arithmetically).

In 1979, the last year for which full statistics are available, small cars were involved in 55 _________ (rate, ratio, percentage, percent) of all fatal crashes even though they constituted only 38 ________ (rate, ratio, percentage, percent) of the cars on the road, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Projecting from current trends, the agency and other safety officials ________ (estimate, guess, predict) that automobile traffic deaths will increase ________ (to, from, of, by) 30 percent by 1989, or ___________(to, from, of, by) about 27,000 a year ___________(to, from, of, by) about 35,000 a year , almost exclusively because of the inherent vulnerability of smaller cars.

Perhaps more significantly, the death rate per hundred million miles driven has begun to increase over the last three years, reversing a fifty-year downward trend. According to the safety council, the rate ________(increased, decreased, raised, rose) from a record low of 3.33 deaths __________ (per, pro, of , from) hundred million miles in 1978 ___________ (to, from, of, by) 3.40 in 1979 and 3.53 in 1980.

Based on its analysis of highway deaths, the highway safety council says occupants of a subcompact car are 3.4 _________ (times, double, triple) more likely to die than those in a compact if two such cars collide; 6.3 ________(ratio, times, lose) more likely to die in a crash with a midsize car; and 8.2 __________(times, quadruple, rate) more likely to die in a collision with a large car.

Model 4: Direct and Indirect Quotation

Read the following model paragraphs and study how both direct and indirect quotations are used to support the topic sentences.

The Population Time Bomb (continued)

The dangers of overpopulation cannot be overestimated. Dr. David Doom, President of Planned Parenthood, maintains that the world will be uninhabitable by the year 200 unless the rate of growth is reduced. According to Dr. Doom, the world’s food production cannot meet the needs of 7 billion people, so famine is an inevitable consequence of uncontrolled population growth. The World Health Organization agrees with Dr. Doom. It recently published a report noting that famine already exists in many parts of Africa and Asia.

The Crime of the Future

The increased use of computers in business has been accompanied by a corresponding increase in computer crime. Computers are used in ever-increasing numbers to store, process and distribute information. At the same time, thefts by computers are on the rise.

The costs to the victims of computer crime are very high. In his book, Crime by Computer, computer expert Don B. Parker estimated that financial losses to business from computer thefts would exceed $10 billion 1978. Although Parker’s estimate is based on documented cases, no one really knows the extent of computer crime because thefts by computers are almost impossible to discover. “There is just no reliable way to detect computer thefts.” Parker said, “It is not just the money they control “They control data, and data is power.”

Writing Technique Questions:

1. Does the first paragraph use direct and indirect quotations? How many quotations are used? What reporting phrases are used?

2. How many direct and/or indirect quotations are use din the paragraphs on computer crime? What main idea do they support?

3. What is the purpose of the superscribed numbers? Are they used only for direct quotations?

Practice 18: Punctuating and Writing Direct and Indirect Quotations

Step 1 Add punctuation marks to the following direct quotation. Change the capitalization if necessary.

Step 2 Rewrite them as indirect quotations. Shift the verb tenses if necessary.

The sentences in this practice are all about black holes, which are invisible masses in space larger than giant stars. The discovery of black holes is causing enormous excitement in the fields of astronomy and physics.

1. Dr. John Miller, a well-known astrophysicist who has been studying black holes, said it is the greatest challenge we astrophysicists have ever faced._________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. 2. He further explained in black holes the long-held laws of nature simply do not apply.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. A black hole is a huge, great, enormous, big nothing explained Miller’s associate, Kathleen Parker. It is an inevitable vacuums cleaner in space she added.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

5. Sine they cannot be seen, even with the most powerful telescope she continued their existence can only be proven mathematically.

Practice 19: detailed Paragraph Outlining I

A. Complete the outline for the following composition

Public Transportation in San Francisco

San Francisco has one of the worst public transportation systems in the United States. The first problem is that the buses and streetcars are never on schedule. You often have to wait thirty minutes or more for your bus. Frequently, several buses going in the same direction arrive at the same time, and then another one may not come for thirty more minutes. Second, maintenance is very poor. The buses and street cars often break down, causing long delays. City officials admit that there is an average of five such breakdowns every day. Furthermore, the buses and streetcars are in a terrible condition. They are always dirty, the windows are frequently broken, and the seats are torn. The third problem is the poor attitude of many of the drivers. They refuse to give information about transfer points, they drive like mad, and they show little consideration for the comfort and safety of their passengers. recently, a friend of mine was actually injured when the driver of a streetcar closed the doors on his fingers. When you are riding a bus, you feel as if you are being tossed around like a bowl of jell because of the sudden stops and starts. A fourth, and by far the moat serious problem is the increase in crime. A report from the San Francisco police Department shows that thefts and assaults have increased forty-three percent over the three previous months. A few days ago, an old man was killed when he tried to resist a thief. In conclusion, because of all these problems, it is becoming increasingly inconvenient and even dangerous to ride public transportation in San Francisco.

Outline San Francisco has one of the worst public transportation systems in the United States.

A. Schedule problems 1. Long waiting time

2. Simultaneous bus arrivals B. Maintenance problems 1. Breakdowns

a. Buses and streetcars

b. Average of five breakdowns per day 2. Bad condition of buses and streetcars a.

__________________________________________________________________ b.

__________________________________________________________________ c.

__________________________________________________________________ C.

___________________________________________________________________ 1.________________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________________ 3.________________________________________________________ a._______________________________________________________ b._______________________________________________________ D. _________________________________________________________ 1. ________________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________________ In conclusion, _________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

B. Complete the outline for the following composition

The Confusing English Spelling System

One of the most difficult and confusing aspects of the English language is its spelling system. There is often a discrepancy between the pronunciation of a word and its spelling. One cannot always tell how to spell a word by its pronunciation nor how to pronounce it by its spelling. For example, there are twelve different ways to spell the sound sh in English: shoe, nation, ocean, sure, mission, machine, special, mansion, nauseous, conscious, and anxious. To give an opposite example, the vowel combination ou can be pronounced in at least five different ways, as in the words through, although, thought, tough, and out.

In order to understand the discrepancies in the English system, it is good to know

something about the history of the language. First, it is helpful to realize that English was originally the spoken language of people in England who could neither read nor write. While the uneducated people spoken English, the educated upper classes spoke in French and wrote in Latin. Later, when English became a written language, there was no system for spelling English words. Moreover, the first writers of English were French-speaking scribes who knew English only slightly; therefore, they carried many French spelling habits into English. In addition, these scribes, who were used to writing in Latin, often inserted letters into words even when they were not pronounced because the corresponding word in Latin was spelled that way. The b in debt and doubt, for example, came from Latin debitum and dubitare. Finally, the confusion increased when the pronunciation of certain words changed while the spelling remained the same. This is the case with the words light and night, where the gh originally represented a distinct sound.

In conclusion, although it may not improve your spelling, it may soothe your feeling of frustration to know that English spelling is just as difficult for native speakers as it is for foreign learners.

Outline I. One of the most difficult and confusing aspects about the English language is its spelling system.

A.___________________________________________________________. B. ___________________________________________________________. 1. ________________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________________ II. In order to understand the discrepancies in the English spelling system, it is helpful to know something about the history of the language.

A. English was originally the spoken language of people in England who could neither read nor write.

1. Uneducated people spoke English.

2. Educated _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ __________________.

B. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ C. __________________________________________________________ 1. _________________________________________________________ 2. _________________________________________________________ a. Scribes added the b in debt from the Latin debitum. b. Scribes added the b in doubt from the Latin dubitare.

D. __________________________________________________________

III. In conclusion, although it may not improve your spelling, it may soothe your feeling of frustration to know that English spelling is just as difficult for native speakers as it is for foreign learners.

Practice 20: Detailed paragraph Outlining II

The sentences below are in scrambled order. Arrange them into a logical outline.

American high schools are facing problems on four fronts. Vandalism in the schools are fascinating.

Teachers who have had to take teacher certification examinations show very low scores.

In 1975, according to an N.E.A report, acts of vandalism and theft cost the school

$200 million.

Colleges report that some new freshmen read and write at the six-grade level. Students aren’t learning anything.

Taxpayers are protesting the increasing costs by voting against tax increases to pay for schools.

During the last ten years, there have been numerous strikes by teachers demanding

higher pay and less work.

On the national Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), a national test for high school seniors, the average scores in verbal ability have fallen by ten percent. Teachers are also creating problems for the schools.

A large school in Chicago, Illinois, reported that one window is broken and two typewriters are stolen every week.

Math scores on the SAT have declined by six percent since 1962. Traditional methods of financing the schools are breaking down.

The schools in Cleveland, Ohio, were closed for three months last winter because

they simply ran out of money.

WRITING PRACTICE

Write one long paragraph in which you argue either for or against a controversial topic.

Step 1 Write a detailed outline of your paragraph before you begin

Step 2 Begin your topic sentence with an opinion phrase, such as In my opinion...or Many people feel that...

Step 3 Add as many reasons as you can think of. Try to use at least three.

Step 4 Support each reason with some kind of specific supporting detail. Vary the kind of support you use—that is, do not use examples only or statistics only. Step 5 Write a brief concluding sentence

Step 6 Before you hand in your outline and paragraph, check it.

Topic suggestions

Birth control and /or family planning abortion Capital punishment Euthanasia

Nuclear power plants

Writing Under Pressure

Make a general opinion statement about one of the groups of people listed below under Topic Suggestions and support your opinion with specific supporting details. Your goal is to convince your reader that your opinion is correct, so you must present very strong arguments.

Make a simple outline before you begin to write, and hand in your outline with your paragraph.

Topic Suggestions

Americans /English teachers/In-laws/Business people/Engineers/professional athletes

Suggested limits:

Outlining Time------3 minutes Writing Time-------10 minutes Checking Time------2 minutes Total-----15 minutes

Writing Task VI: Paraphrasing and summarizing

****** 在写作的时候，有时需要将引自他处的观点等用自己的话来表达出来，这就需要重新组织句子，即paraphrasing。做paraphrasing的时候，可以有几种方法：

1．尽可能用同义词来表达原来的意思。 2．可将主动、被动语态互换。 3．将直接引语转为间接引语。需注意的事项：

Step 1 Read the selection carefully several times until you understand it fully. Step 2 Look up any words you do not understand; find synonyms for them. Step 3 Write a brief outline, including:

a. the main idea (topic and controlling ideas) b. the main supporting points

c. primary and secondary supporting details

Step 4 Write the paraphrase. Use your own words, but do not omit any essential ideas. Above all, do not change the meaning of the original.

Model 1: Paraphrases

Original When the Maracana soccer stadium (in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) was opened to the public in 1950, and Brazil lost the World Cup to the Uriguayan team, the Brazilians were so dishearted one had the impression that the country itself had died. And people died die of sadness. Mere threats of defeat in a championship match can cause heart attacks and the despair of the public is so great that many beat their heads against the cement posts. Such is the Brazilian’s passion for soccer.

Outline A. Brazil lost the World Cup in 1950. 1. Entire country was sad. 2. Some people died.

B. Possible defeat causes strong reaction. 1. Some experience heart attacks. 2. Some beat their heads.

C. Brazilians are emotional about soccer.

Paraphrase In 1950, Brazil lost the world Cup in soccer to Uruguay in Rio de Janeiro. The entire country was overcome by sadness: some people even died from it. Brazilians react very strongly to potential defeat in championship soccer games. Some people have heart attacks, and others beat their heads against cement posts. Brazilians are very emotional about soccer. Practice 21: Paraphrasing I

Paraphrase each of the following selections. Follow the steps outlined above.

Paragraph 1

However great the powers of the President of the United States, they are restricted by the “checks and balances” represented in the Congress, in the supreme Court of the United States, and in the force of public opinion. However, of all the elective officers of our government, only the president and the Vice President are chosen by all the voters of the United States.

Paragraph 2

The Smithsonian Institution is an independent establishment dedicated to the increase and diffusion of knowledge. It is a great complex of museums and art galleries, scholars, and experts in many fields. It is devoted to public education, basic research, and national service in the arts, sciences and history, with major facilities in Washington, around the country, and overseas.

Paragraph 3

“Vitamin c in large doses” not only protect against the common cold, but also offers considerable protection against other infectious diseases, both viral and bacterial. I believe that Vitamin C in adequate amounts could considerably decrease the incidence and severity of the flu.

********Summary 的写作类似于paraphrase, 只不过Summary在篇幅上要短。因为Summary中往往压缩了原文中大量的内容。写Summary的步骤几乎与做paraphrase时一样，但要注意细节的内容必须省略。如Model 1的概要：

The Brazilian people become so emotionally involved with the national soccer team that in 1950, when their team lost the World Cup to Uruguay, the entire country was saddened, and some people even died. The mere possibility of defeat causes genuine physical suffering.

Model 2: A summary

Original For generations, Americans have researched their pasts to discover who their ancestors were. In recent years , many people have developed an avid interest in their genealogy and the cultural heritage of their ancestors. This interest was sparked for two reasons. First, Americans celebrated the bicentennial of the United States in 1976 and paid tribute to this country’s history. Second, and more recently, the book Roots, which traces the family history of an American black man named Alex Haley back to Africa, was serialized on national television. As a result of these two events, a new pastime for thousands of Americans was created.

Outline A. American research into background 1. Ancestors

2. Cultural heritage B. Reasons for research

1. Bicentennial celebration 2. Roots

Summary Recently many Americans have become interested in their backgrounds in order to identify their ancestors and learn about their cultural heritage. This interest in genealogy began with the U.S. Bicentennial celebration and intensified with the televising of the family history of Alex Haley, a black American.

Practice 22: Writing Summaries I

Write a summary of each of the following paragraphs.

Paragraph 1

Convenience goods may be classified as staples, impulse goods, and emergency goods. Staples are bought and used frequently without much consideration being given to their purchase. Many food products and non-prescription drug items are staple goods. Brand identification may have some weight in the buying decision, but usually easy availability will be more important than the brand. Items such as bread, milk, and aspirin are considered staples, and easy availability to consumers is important in their distribution.

Paragraph 2

Impulse goods are items that customers buy on sight without having gone out specifically for their purchase. Their unit price is usually low. The purchase of an impulse good satisfies a need that is strongly felt at the moment. Items that customers will buy on an impulse are frequently placed near store door or at cash registers. Candy bars, chewing gum. cigarettes and magazines are frequently displayed in this way.

Paragraph 3

A good may be either a staple or an impulse item, depending on the purchase of the good’s use and on whether the god was purchased because of an immediately felt need. Candy bars may be considered staple goods if they are purchased for lunch boxes as part of a weekly grocery shopping trip. But a candy bar might be viewed as an impulse item it were purchased and eaten on the spot because a person just happened to see it.

Paragraph 4

Emergency goods are bought only when an urgent need is felt. In this situation price is not too important, because the customer needs the goods at once. Tire chains purchased at a turnpike service station during a, or ambulance service for the victim of a heart attack are examples of emergency goods.

Paragraph 5

Shopping goods are in a totally different category. Shopping goods are compared with competing products for price, quality, style, or service by the customer before purchase. This presents an opportunity for selling by sales personnel. Shopping goods typically have a relatively high unit price and are bought less frequently than convenience goods. Examples of shopping goods include apparel, jewelry, furniture and appliances.

Paragraph 6

Since the customer will probably want to compare shopping goods with those sold by the competition, retail stores selling such goods find it desirable to be located close together. In some cases the name of the retail store is more important to the customer than the name of the manufacturer. Therefore, the retailer has considerable opportunity to increase sales of shopping goods through production.

Paragraph 7

Specialty goods is yet another classification of consumer items. Specialty goods are identified by customers with strong brand [preference or with features that justify a special buying effort. The customer usually has knowledge of the product before the buying trip and is willing to go out of the way to find a certain brand. Examples of specialty goods include photographic equipment, expensive clothing, and stereo sets. An automobile may be considered a specialty good by the customer who has a strong preference for a particular manufacturer’s models.

Writing Task VII: 文章的写作

一篇文章包括三个主要部分：引言段，发展段和结尾段。且每一段落的发展可以依照前面六个Writing Task中的发展过程去做。

Model 1: The Introductory Paragraph

A person born in the twentieth century has seen a lot of changes take place in almost all areas of human life. Some people are excited by the challenges that these changes offer; others want to return to the simpler, less automated life style of the past. Living in the twentieth century has certain advantages such as a higher standard of living, but it also has some disadvantages such as a polluted environment, the depersonalization of human relationships, and the weakening of spiritual values.

引言段中通常包括两个部分：引出主题的概括性陈述句以及表明主题的句子。

Practice 23: Recognizing the parts of an introduction

Step 1 Read the following introductory paragraphs, each of which is in incorrect

order.

Step 2 Rewrite each paragraph, beginning with the most general statement first.

Then add each sentence in the correct order until the introduction becomes most specific. Write the thesis statement last.

Paragraph 1

(1) The heavy traffic problem can be solved by building rapid transit systems from the suburbs to the cities, by improving public transportation systems within the cities, and by forming car pools. (2) Traffic congestion is caused by the thousands of cars that come into the cities from the suburban areas as well as from the thousands of cars within the city limits. (3) One of the most serious problems that most big cities are faced with is traffic congestion. (4) This mammoth problem must be resolved before it gets worse.

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