v1.0 可编辑可修改 Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.

(Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。

traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language. 传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。 )

什么是语言

定义

语言language：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

Design features of language 必考P8

It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性

Productivity多产性 （创造性）

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v1.0 可编辑可修改 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性

Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness

There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.

the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity

Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality

Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement

Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

⑸Cultural transmission

Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 6

v1.0 可编辑可修改 Functions of language 语言的功能

Descriptive function, expressive function, social function

Six elements of a speech event specified by Jakobson: Addresser - Emotive 感情功能 Addressee - Conative 意动功能 Context - Referential 所指功能 Message - Poetic 诗歌功能

Contact - Phatic communion 寒暄功能 Code - Metalinguistic 无语言功能

Chapter Two Phonology

Phonetics（语音学）

定义

Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.

是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音

Organs of speech

3个区域：the pharyngeal cavity 咽腔-the throat，the oral cavity口腔-the mouth，7

v1.0 可编辑可修改 nasal cavity 鼻腔-the nose 清音Voiceless

When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 浊音Voicing

Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.

宽式音标和严式音标

宽式音标Broad transcription 8