d) At present, the superpowers are armed to the teeth with nuclear weapons, placing the people of the whole world under
their nuclear threat.目前超级大国用核武器装到了牙齿，把全世界人民都置于他们的威胁之下。 Sometimes an image in the source language has no corresponding image in the target language culture. Therefore, simply reproducing the same image can not convey the same aesthetic and expressive effect to the target language readers. So we may produce the same with its pragmatic meaning added to the translated text. Therefore, the target language readers can visualize the fresh image in their culture with the pragmatic meaning explained. The same aesthetic and expressive function can be obtained.
2. Reproducing the same image plus paraphrase.
Sometimes an image in the source language has no corresponding image in the target language culture. Therefore, simply reproducing the same image can not convey the same aesthetic and expressive effect to the target language readers. So we may produce the same with its pragmatic meaning added to the translated text. Therefore, the target language readers can visualize the fresh image in their culture with the pragmatic meaning explained. The same aesthetic and expressive function can be obtained.
To carry coals to Newcastle.运煤到纽卡索，多此一举。
The planners were busy bypassing the Gordian knot.计划制订者为躲避戈尔迪结—刺手问题，而忙得不可开交。 3.Replacing the image in the SL with a familiar TL image.
Sometimes, an image has no corresponding image in the language culture. Therefore, we may conduct the shift of image by
reproducing the same image plus paraphrase. But if such an image has its corresponding image in the target language yet different association is aroused by the same image between the two cultures, then we may replace the image with another image in the target language which has similar associative meaning in the source language. Then the target language readers can enjoy similar aesthetic pleasure and expressive effect. One stone, two birds.一箭双雕。
Richard could not go to a library and writing the report was a job of making bricks without straw. 理查德不能去图书馆，那么要写这份报告无异于要他做无米之炊。 He that sows the wind will reap the whirlwind.玩火者自焚。 Tom is as poor as a church mouse.汤姆一贫如洗 Don’t teach fish to swim.不要班门弄斧
4.Delete the image
Owing to the difference in culture and language, sometimes the image in the source text is hard to keep and although it can
be kept, the translated text would be lengthy in language form and difficult to understand or even unacceptable for the target language readers. In order to avoid such shortcomings brought about by reproducing the same image, the translator can delete the image and just convey the pragmatic meaning of the image. Certainly such a way would inevitably damage the aesthetic function with the loss of the image but at least its expressive function can be kept with the conveyance of the pragmatic meaning. Of course, the translator should try every possible means to make up for the loss of the esthetic function.
How could she remain as cool as cucumber at such a critical moment?在如果紧要关头，她怎么能保持如此冷静？ Mary was born with a silver spoon in her mouth. 玛丽生在富贵之家
Among so many well-dressed and cultured people, the country girl felt like a fish out of water. 同这么多穿着体面而又有教养的人在一起，这位乡下姑娘感到很不自在。
Many people don’t like Jack because he is a wet blanket. 很多人都不喜欢杰克因为他是一个令人扫兴的人。
第三章 直译与意译
Literal Translation and Free Translation
The so-called literal translation, generally speaking, means― not to alter the original words and sentences‖; strictly speaking, it strives ―to keep the sentiments and style of the original‖. It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech.
For example, the concept of ―death‖ may be expressed as follows: breathe one’s last（断气）, go to one’s eternal rest（安
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息），the long sleep（长眠）, pass away（去世），see God（见上帝）, see Marx（见马克思），see one’s ancestors（见祖先）, go west(归西)，go to heaven（进天国），kick the bucket（蹬腿儿了）…etc. Actually, quite a lot of successful literal translations have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile tears（鳄鱼的眼泪）,be armed to the teeth（武装到牙齿）， chain reaction（连锁反应）, gentlemen’s agreement（君子协定），and so on. Similarly, some Chinese words and expressions may also find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example,―三教九流‖(the three religions and the nine schools of thought), ―四书五经‖（the Four Books and the Five Classics）, ―纸老虎‖(paper tiger),―一国两制‖（one country, two systems）, and so on.
Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible to translate the original literally.
Adam’s apple喉结 It rains cats and dogs.大雨滂沱 Don’t cross the bridge till you get to it.不必担心过早，（不必自寻烦恼） Do you see any green in my eye? 你以为我是幼稚可欺的吗？
The above illustrations can not be translated literally, otherwise, the Chinese rendition would make no sense at all, let alone the original meaning.
More often than not, literal translation and free translation may be alternately used in the process of translation, as illustrated by the following examples:
1. There’s no pot so ugly it can’t find a lid.Literal translation: 再丑的罐儿也不愁配个盖儿。Or：罐儿再丑，配个盖儿不犯愁。Free translation：再丑的姑娘也不愁找不到婆家。Or：丑女不愁嫁。 2．Little fish does not eat big fish.Literal translation: 小鱼吃不了大鱼。Free translation: 胳膊拧不过大腿。
3．What the tongue says, the neck pays for
Literal translation: 舌头说话，脖子还帐。 Free translation: 舌头闯祸，脖子遭殃。
4．What was hatched a hen must not try to be a rooster!
Literal translation: 孵出来是母鸡就别想冒充公鸡！ Free translation: 生就是个女人就别想冒充男人！
5．A gift is the key to open the door closed against you.
Literal translation: 礼物是打开把你关在门外的房门的钥匙。Free translation: 大门把你关在外，礼物送到门自开。 Literal translation and free translation, however, are two relative concepts. In other words, there is no absolute ―literal‖, nor entirely ―free‖ version in the practice of translation, and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences.
第四章 增译法
一、概述
作为翻译的一个普遍原则，译者不应该对原文的内容随意增减。不过，由于英汉两种语言文字之间所存在的巨大差异，在实际翻译过程中我们很难做到字词句上完全对应。因此，为了准确地传达出原文的信息，往往需要对译文作一些增减。所谓增译法，就是在原文的基础上添加必要的单词、词组、分句或完整句，从而使译文在语法、语言形式上符合汉语的习惯并使译文在文化背景、词语联想方面与原文保持一致，以达到译文与原文在内容、形式和精神方面对等起来的目的。这里的增加不是无中生有地随意增加，而是增加原文中虽无其词却有其意的一些部分。从理论上说可以根据具体的上下文增加任何词, 但在什么时候增加什么样的词，才能恰到好处，而不超出一定的界限，则需要悉心体会。 二、西方译论的增译（补偿）思想
1.奈达（Eugene A. Nida）：功能对等增译理论
（1）增译要建立在功能对等基础之上，即通过对同构缺失的增译取得功能对等。 （2）可以采用同样手段在不同位置实施增译。 （3）通过实施局部增译旨在达到整体等效。 2.斯坦纳（George Steiner）： 阐释学增译理论
（1）翻译损失贯穿于具有阐释性质的整个翻译过程。 （2）审美主体（译者）是造成翻译损失的首要原因。
（3）翻译损失的要害在于质的损益，而不在于量的增减，因此增译不应以词语增减为唯一准绳。
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（4）原文与译文的关系是辨证关系。翻译过程不仅会使原文有所损失，也能使原文的生命得以延续。 3.纽马克（Peter Newmark）： 以文本为中心的增译理论
（1）在宏观上，增译程序的启动取决于文本类型和功能；在微观上，增译取决于潜在增译对象本身的价值，即通过判定损失案例是否与语境关系重大来确定增译的合理性。
（2）对具有表情功能的文本要以作者为中心，尽可能尊重原文表层形式，即便翻译时有所损失，也不要轻易采取增译手段；对于呼唤类型文本，要以读者为中心，注重文本对读者产生的语效，对增译的运用相对宽松。 （3）源语与目的语之间很少存在完全对等词语。追求充分翻译可能丧失行文的简洁性；追求简洁又可能造成欠额翻译。因此，应当权衡两者之间的利弊，在增译和简洁之间保持适当的张力。 4.巴尔胡达罗夫（L.S.Barkhudarov）：等值的增译理论
（1）增译是为了弥补目的语缺少等值成分造成的语义损失。
（2）增译不必拘泥于低层语言单位的对位，而是寻求在话语层的整体等值。 （3）增译主要适用于标志原文某些语言特点的语言内部意义和传达语用意义。 三、增译的运用
1. 增添原文所省略的词语
1）Matter can be changed into energy, and energy into matter. 物质可以转化为能，能也可以转化为物质。 2）The best conductor has the least resistance and the poorest the greatest.最好的导体电阻最小，最差的导体电阻最大。
3）In the evening, after the banquets, the concerts and the table tennis exhibitions, he would work on the drafting of the final communiqué. 晚上在参加宴会、出席音乐会和观看乒乓球表演以后，他还得起草最后公报。 2 .增添必要的连接词
1）Heated, water will change into vapor. 水如受热，就会汽化。
2）However carefully boiler casings and steam pipes are sealed, some heat escapes and is lost. 不管锅炉壳与蒸汽管封闭得多么严密，还是有一部份热散失损耗掉。
3）Since air has weight, it exerts force on any object immersed in it. 因为空气具有重量，所以处在空气中的任何物体都会受到空气的作用力。 3 .用增词表达出复数概念
1）Note that the words “velocity” and “speed” require explanation. 请注意，“速度”和“速率”这两个词需要解释。
2）He stretched his legs which were scattered with scars. 他伸出双腿，露出腿上的道道伤痕。
3）The mountains began to throw their long blue shadows over the valley. 群山开始向山谷投下一道道蔚蓝色长影。
4. 用增词法把抽象概念表达清楚
1）Oxidation will make iron and steel rusty. 氧化作用会使钢铁生锈。
2）This lack of resistance in very cold metals may become useful in electronic computers. 这种在甚低温金属中没有电阻的现象可能对电子计算机很有用处。
3）After all preparations were made, the plane took off. 一切准备工作就绪以后，飞机就起飞了。 5 .逻辑性增词
1）Air pressure decreases with altitude. 气压随海拔高度的增加而下降。
2）I was taught that two sides of a triangle were greater than the third. 我学过，三角形的两边之和大于第三边。
3）This shows that the resistance of an electric conductor is inversely proportional to its cross-section area. 这表明，导体电阻的大小与导体横切面的大小成反比。 6 .概括性增词
）According to scientists, it takes nature 500 years to create an inch of topsoil. 根据科学家们的看法，自然界要用500年的时间才能形成一英寸厚的表层土壤。
2）The thesis summed up the new achievements made in electronic computers, artificial satellites and rockets.
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论文总结了电子计算机、人造卫星和火箭三方面的新成就。 3）The principal functions that may be performed by vacuum tubes are rectification, amplification, oscillation, modulation, and detection. 真空管的五大主要功能是整流、放大、振荡、调制和检波。 7 .从修辞和连贯角度考虑增词
1）This printer is indeed cheap and fine. 这部打印机真是物美价廉。
2) Yes, I like Chinese food. Lots of people do these days. Sort of the fashion. 不错，我喜欢中国菜。现在很多人都喜欢中国菜，这种情况算是有点儿赶时髦吧！
3) A scientist constantly tried to defeat his hypotheses, his theories and his conclusion. 科学家经常设法否定自己的假设、推翻自己的理论，并放弃自己的结论。 8 .重复性增词
1）Avoid using this computer in extreme cold, heat, dust or humidity.不要在过冷、过热、灰尘过重、湿度过大的情况下使用此电脑。
2）I had experienced oxygen and/ or engine trouble. 我曾经遇到的情况，不是氧气出故障，就是引擎出故障，或两者都出故障。
3）They could sense her (Titanic) mass, her eerie quiet and the ruined splendor of a lost age. 他们会体会到它（“泰坦尼克”号）船体的巨大，感受到它周围的可怕沉寂，领略到因岁月的流逝而造成的凄凉景观。 9 .背景性增译
1）This great scientist was born in New England.这位伟大的科学家出生于美国东北部的新英格兰。 2 ）The blond boy quickly crossed himself.那个金发男孩立刻在胸前画十字，祈求上帝保佑。 3）The British people are still profoundly divided on the issue of joining Europe. 在英国人民中间到目前为止一直在英国是否加入欧洲“共同市场”的问题上存在严重分歧。 四、案例分析 Beauty Die香消玉殒
五、课堂练习
1. Courage in excess becomes foolhardiness, affection weakness, thrift avarice. 2. Suppose it were so?
3.White clouds float over the blue sky.
4. Correspondents went flying off to Baghdad for interview last month.
5.The U. N. Security council is doing its best to ease tensions in Baghdad.
6.Our students should be developed in an all-round way--morally intellectually and physically. 7.China and the United States reached an agreement on the agenda of the meeting 8.Their host carved, served, cut bread, talked, laughed, proposed healths. 9. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing exact man. 10. They carried on the work in spite of the difficulties. 参考译文
1.勇敢过度，即成蛮勇；感情过度，既成溺爱；俭约过度成贪梦
2.果真如此，又该怎么办呢？ 3.蓝蓝的天上飘浮着朵朵白云。
4.上个月，记者纷纷飞往巴格达进行采访。
5.联合国安理会正在尽最大的努力来缓和巴格达的紧张局势。 6.我们的学生应在德、智、体三方面得到全面发展。
7.中美双方就会议议程达成了协议。
8.他们的主人，又是割啊，又是倒啊，又是布菜啊，又是切面包啊，又是谈啊，又是笑啊，又是敬酒啊，忙得不亦乐乎。
9.读书使人充实，讨论使人机智，笔记使人准确。 10.尽管困难重重，他们还是把工作进行下去。
六、拓展阅读书目
1.Eugene A. Nida:Toward a Sciene of Translating [M], Leiden:E.J.Bill,1964.
2.George Steiner: After Babel:Aspects of Language and Translation [M], Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language
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