borrowed later from the Norse.

第二章：The development of the English vocabulary The Indo-European Language Family

It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it 5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar . (重点：语系划分的标准）

What is the criteria to divide language families ?

The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2. grammar

(重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：) Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian. ‘Indo-European’ 两大分支： 1.Eastern set 2.Western set

Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic.

In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton

The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic.

The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch ,Flemish and English.

With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English language.

It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English.

Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.

重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England

古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )

古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts) Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？

.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )

如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period , modern period.

*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期 （重要的选择或填空内容） Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？

The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period 现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization) The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from (Colonization )

The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容) Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary Three main sources of new words :

1)The rapid development of modern science and technology 2)Social, economic and political changes;

3)The influence of other cultures and language 2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing

2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ） Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer

外来词可以被称作borrowed words , 因此又可以被称作 . 重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words . 恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色

Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially true of American English.

英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 是在英语的哪 一个阶段完成的？

答案：Modern English period

文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段? 答案：Early Modern English period

在英语发展过程 在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？ French, Latin, English in Middle English period

easel, port, freight, 出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？ 答案：Middle English , Dutch

在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500 个词汇，这 种语言是什么？

答案：Dutch (前年考题)

据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少? 答案：50,000 to 60,000

他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )

第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu, 这些词属于英语词汇发展的Present - day English Vocabulary 注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。

Old English 和 Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面? 答案：Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.

文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响? 答案：Greek , Roman culture

某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段? 答案：Modern English

十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry? 答案：Printing

这导致sound and form 出现concord , 出现standardization. 第三章复习:

The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes) The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)

In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel change , this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)

Deer 复数没有变,还是deer, sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep, 因此,这种变化被 称作(zero derivation) 名词解释:

Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes.

In other words, the morphemes is ’the smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorphs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs, e.g.

the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches

It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish 简答题： what are the types of morphemes ? ( 答简答题时,名词解释) 答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes Free morphemes :

1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.

2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.

3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single free root .

4) free morphemes are free roots.

bound morphemes: 1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound..

2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words.

3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes.

Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.

Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words.

2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and

suffixes.

root : 1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word

3) a ’root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed’

stem : 1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root

morphemes as in a compound like handcuff.

2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in

mouthful, underestimate.

3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.

问题：Stem 和 root 有一个最大的区别在哪里? ( 连着两年没有考过) 答案： a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can

be added.

问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 请加以理论的分析? Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence,

Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still remains

Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction .

问题：分析下面一句话: He is much more cleverer than any other one in the village,

too heads are better than one. 请从构词角度分析以上的例子, cleverer , better

cleverer (-er : inflectional affixes )

better ( good , well 的特殊变化) It is allomorph of good and well. 第四章:

问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种? 答案：有七种:

1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending

有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion 问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?