翻译理论整理汇总
翻译腔（translationeses）是在译文中留有源语言特征等翻译痕迹的现象，严重的翻译腔使译文读起来不够通顺。出现翻译腔有时是很难免的。形成翻译腔有以下几个原因：1）英汉语言本身的不同，包括句型结构等，在翻译时如果不能做到自由转换就会有种不是地道目标语的感觉。2）英汉文化的不同，不同的文化背景下，单词或习语有时会出现偏差甚至零对等（zero-correspondence）。有时只讲词对词的反应就会出现翻译腔。3）译者自身水平。奈达的功能对等就要求译者注重译文对读者的影响，好的译文让读者感觉是母语的写作、实现功能的对等。Venuti主张同化和异化的结合，通过同化让读者获得相识的反应，通过异化使读者领略异国语言和文化。译者应该提高自己翻译水平，在翻译策略上实现功能对等，从而尽量避免翻译腔的出现。
1. 中国的翻译理论家
严复、茅盾、鲁迅、朱光潜、傅雷、钱钟书
1）严复
信、达、雅——faithfulness、expressiveness、elegance/gracefulness
2）茅盾
他也主张“直译”，反对“意译”，他认为汉语确实存在语言组织上欠严密的不足，有必要吸引印欧语系的句法形态。但是矛盾与鲁迅观点同中有异，他认为“直译”并不是“字对字”，一个不多，一个不少。因为中西文法结构截然不同，纯粹的“字对字”是不可能的。
3）鲁迅
鲁迅的“宁信而不顺”是“凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面，一当然是力求易解，一则保存着原作风姿”，这是鲁迅的基本思想。针对当年那种“牛头不对马嘴”的胡译、乱译以及所谓“与其信而不顺，不如顺而不信”的说法（梁秋实），提出了“宁信而不顺”这一原则，主张直译，以照顾输入新表现法和保持原作的风貌。他还认为，翻译一要“移情”、“益志”，译文要有“异国情调”，二要“输入新的表现法”，以改进中文的文法，在当时主要表现为改进白话文。必须强调的是，鲁迅其实是主张翻译要通顺，又要忠实的。只是二者不可兼得的情况下，“宁信而不顺”。
4）林语堂
他是在中国议学史上第一个最明确地将现代语言学和心理学作为翻译理论的“学理剖析”的基础的。了解翻译的三条标准：忠实、通顺和美。
5）朱光潜
他的翻译标准是：第一，不违背作者的意思；第二，要使读者在肯用心了解时能够了解。
6）傅雷的“神似说”（spirit alikeness）
傅雷对翻译有两个比喻，一是“以效果而言，翻译应该像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似”。二是就手法而言“以甲国文字传达乙国文字所包含的那些特点，必须像伯乐相马，要得其精而忘其粗，在其内而忘其外”。
7）钱钟书的“化境”说（sublimation） 所谓“化境”（sublimation），是指原作在译文中就像“投胎转世”，躯体换了一个，但精魄依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来想翻译出的东西的：“文学翻译的最高理想可以说是‘化’，把作品从一国文字转换成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算得入于‘化境’”。
2. 国外的翻译理论家
1）John Dryden
Metaphrase(逐词译), turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.
Paraphrase(释译), or translation with latitude, where the author's words are not so strictly followed but his sense.
Imitation(拟议), where the translation assumes the liberty, bot only to vary fro the words and the sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion.
2）Alexander Fraser Tytler
a. That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. b. That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the
original.
c. That the translation should have all the ease of original composition.
3）Eugene A. Nida
Nida: translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. 所谓翻译，就是从语义到文体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息。
Reproducing the message; Equivalence rather than identity; A natural equivalent; The closest equivalent; The style;
Dynamic equivalence is to describe it as \closest natural equivalent to the source-language message\This type of definition contains three essential terms: 1) equivalent, which points toward the source-language message; 2) natural, which points roward the receptor language, and 3)closest, which binds the two orientations together on the basis of the highest degree of approximation.
4）Peter Newmark
1. Semantic translation: \the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact\expressive (literary) texts tend more toward the semantic method of translation.
语义性翻译：屈从原语文化和原作者，翻译原文的语义，只在原文的内涵意义构成理解的最大障碍时才加以解释。属超额翻译。
2. Communicative translation: on the other hand, \to render the exact
contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership\Informative and non-literary texts require communicative translation.
交际性翻译：译作所产生的效果应力求接近原作，首先终于译语和译文读者，即使原语屈从译语和译语文化，不给读者留下任何疑点和难懂之处，属欠额翻译。
5）Skopostheory 德国目的论
1. Translation Studies returns the attention to the Receptor side. Skopostheory begins by seeing translation as a purposeful \possibly to a 'new' object\realized is not random, but must be \with the client who commissions the action\
2. As Vermeer insists: \from each other quite considerably not only in the formulation and distribution of the content but also as regards the goals which are set for each\
6）Holmes
He divides Translation Studies into two major branches, \and \and then sun-divides the \Translation Studies.
Translation Methods:
1. Word -for word translation
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source language of to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process.
2. Literal translation
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.
3. Faithful translation
A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It \and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical \norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realization of the SL write.
4. Semantic translation
Semantic translation differs from \account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text,
compromising on \where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents and it may make other small concessions to the readership. The distinction between \and \translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator's intuitive empathy with the original.
5. Adaptation
This tis the \from of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten. The deplorable of having a play or poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have \
6. Free translation
Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content withour the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrases
7. Communicate translation
Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.