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Writing Up Research

Experimental Research Report Writing for

Students of English

Robert Weissberg, Suzanne Buker

CONTENTS PREFACE

To the Teacher To the Student

1 THE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REPORT 2THE INTRODUCTION; Establishing a Context 3THE INTRODUCTION: Reviewing Previous Research 4 THE INTRODUCTION: Advancing to Present Research 5 METHOD 6 MATERIALS 7 RESULTS 8 DISCUSSION 9 ABSTRACT CREDITS INDEX

PREFACE

Writing Up Research is designed for high-intermediate and advanced ESL/EFLuniversity students at the upper division or graduate level who are preparing to engage in scientific research in a variety of academic disciplines. For these students, the ability to write up the results of their own research in the form of technical reports, theses, dissertations, and even journal articles for publication is a key to their success as university students and as professionals in their own disciplines. Based on almost two decades of research in written English for science and technology, this book provides instruction and practice in this special area of academic writing.

The English of an experimental research report is highly conventionalized, a fact that represents a great advantage for non-native speakers as well as for their language instructors. If one can master the conventions, one can replicate the genre in an acceptable form. Moreover, the conventions are fairly consistent across a wide variety of scientific disciplines. They involve (1) structuring arguments and (2) matching linguistic forms to rhetorical purposes. This involves the writer's having to make a series of language choices. This text helps students to see what those choices are and to select the most appropriate - that is, the most conventional- option.

Although this book deals with technical English, the instructional language is not technical. It is accessible to high-level students regardless of their fields of study. The book does, however, contain many authentic examples of technical English taken from published experimental research reports in various fields. These show students how researchers actually use the conventions presented here in reporting on their work.

The best way for students to develop skills in writing the English of experimental research reports is to acquire them in a natural setting. This involves familiarizing themselves with published literature in their fields, conducting research projects with co-workers, and finally writing up their results. A textbook alone cannot substitute for this immersion environment; however, it can serve as a friendly and useful guide for students who are or will soon be involved in writing up their research.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to express our gratitude to the many workers in the field of English forscience and technology whose research has provided the basis for this text. Principal among them are Louis

Trimble, Mary Todd-Trimble, John Lackstrom, Robert Vly-Broman, and Larry Selinker, whose publications beginning in the 1970s first provided us with a rational approach to teaching the experimentalresearch report. Of specific help in analyzing particularfeatures of the reporthas been the work of John Swales on article introductions, Gregory West and Betty Lou Dubois on the discussion section, and Edward Cremmins on abstracts. Of course, we assume full responsibility for all rhetorical and grammatical analyses that appear here. We are especially grateful to Louisa Hellegers, our production editor at Prentice Hall, for her patience and careful attention to detail during the preparation of the book.

TO THE TEACHER

Writing Up Research may be used in academic English classes with students who are already enrolled in a university program or who are preparing for university entrance. The text can be used as part of a larger course in academic writing or it can be used throughout an entire semester. The language and content of the book are aimed at students with a TOEFL score of approximately 475 or higher. The material is appropriate for students planning to conduct research projects in the social sciences (including education), the natural and physical sciences, and engineering.

It is not the intention of this book to teach the research process itself. We assume that students will take courses in research methods and statistical analysis as part of their advanced studies or that they may already have this background. Our purpose is to show students how to translate their research activities into written reports that conform to the expectations of the English-speakingscientific/academic community.

Because most of the text models and many of the exercises used through-out Writing Up Research are based on excerpts from published experimental research reports, some of the terminology encountered will be new for students unfamiliar with particular fields of study. However, we have chosen these models on the basis of general interest level and accessibility to all research-oriented students. Additionally, we have attempted to represent as many different fields of study as possible in the excerpts. Students should be advised that they need not be familiar with every word in every model or exercise in order to recognize the conventions being studied or to understand the instructional point being presented.

An Instructor's Guide is available. It includes lesson suggestions for each chapter as well as

answer keys to the exercises. It also includes notes on variations found across disciplines for some of the conventions covered in the text.

Finally, we hope that this book adequately fills an important need for you and your students: a straightforward and readable guide to the conventionsEnglish-speaking researchers follow when they write up their work.

TO THE STUDENT

This book is designed to help you learn to use the most important features oftechnical and scientific English in writing about research in your field. The principal type of writing treated here is the experimental research report, but the information in this book is also relevant to writing research proposals, literature reviews, summaries, abstracts, and especially theses and dissertations.

Many of the expressions and grammatical structures presented in these chapters may not be new to you. What will be new are the specific uses of these items in technical writing. These uses are called \because they are commonly followed by authors in most fields of research. Technical writing in English is very conventional. That is, when you have learned the conventions presented in this book, you will be able to write an acceptable report about almost any research project that you may carry out.

Examples from published research articles in various field are included in each chapter. These show you how scientists use the language forms you are studying when they write up their research. Sometimes these examples will include technical vocabulary that is new to you. Try not to be distracted by these terms; they should not interfere with your ability to understand the examples or to appreciate the way these writers use the language conventions you are studying. We hope, in fact, that you will find these excerpts to be interesting examples of research in many different fields.

In working through this book, you will be asked to find examples of published research in your area of interest. This is done because we believe that the more you read, the better you will write. You will also be asked to carry out an original research project to put into practice the conventions you are studying. Through these activities of reading, writing, and research practice, you will soon master the language of the experimental research report.

Robert Weissbergand Suzanne Buker New Mexico State University

1 THE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REPORT

OVERVIEW

An experimental research report is a paper written by an investigator todescribe a research study that he or she has completed. The purpose of the report is to explain to others in the field what the objectives, methods, and findings of the study were. The report may be published in a professional journal, it may appear as a monograph distributed by a research institution or publishing company, or it may be written in the form of a thesis or dissertation as part of the requirements for a university degree.

We use the term \studies. One typical kind is the controlled scientificexperiment, where the researchers conduct empirical tests while identifying and controlling as many factors as possible that may affect the outcome of the study. Another common kind of research is correlational, in which the investigators compare two or more different variables to determine if any predictable relationships exist among them. Other kinds of studies may deal with information obtained from survey questionnaires or from case studies. Still other studies use computer-generated models that attempt to explain or predict phenomena observed in the laboratory or in nature.

All these kinds of studies share some common characteristics. First, they are designed around a research question. As a possible answer to the research question, the researcher formulates a hypothesis and then designs the study in such a way as to reject or support the hypothesis. Also, such studies are usually quantitative - that is, they deal with numerical data obtained in carrying out the study. These data are usually treated with one or more statistical tests to determine how seriously the results should be taken.

The reports written to describe these different kinds of studies also have much in common. Normally, a report includes descriptions of the purpose, method, and results of the study. Complete results are usually presented in tables and graphs. Such a report contains references to other published works in the same area of study. A bibliography (a list of references) listing these works, along with all the information needed to find them in a library, is always included at the end of the report. Finally, a brief summary or an abstract covering the most important information in the report is usually

attached.

The organizational format for all experimental research reports is basically the same, regardless of the field of study in which the author is working. Some of the research fields treated in this book are listed here.

Education Economics Agronomy

The purpose of this chapter is to show you the basic format writers in thesefields use to report the findings of their studies and to give you practice in recognizing the components that make up the format.

Management Chemistry Animal Science Biology Psychology Language Sociology Engineering Business INFORMATION CONVENTIONS

The following diagram illustrates the major sections of a typical experimentalresearch report in the order in which they are usually presented. The diagram also shows the chapters in this book that deal with each of the sections.

FIGURE 1.1 Typical sections of the experimental research report.

The Experimental Research Report-An Example

To help you understand the basic format of the experimental research report,we present here a report originally published in a professional journal. The reportdescribes a study carried out in the field of agricultural education. Thestudy evaluates the effectiveness of using microcomputers to teach economicprinciples to university students in a graduate course.

USING MICROCOMPUTERS IN TEACHING

Norman F. Rohrbach, District Supervisor

Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education

Jefferson City, Missouri

Bob R. Stewart, Professor Agricultural Education University of Missouri-Columbia

Abstract - Although microcomputers are now common in classrooms throughout the United States, it is not clear what their most effective role is in the teaching-learning process. This study compared the effects of microcomputer-assisted instruction and traditional lecture-discussion on the performance of graduate students enrolled in on agricultural education course. Students in the control group performed significantly better on a written test than either of the two treatment groups. Students having previous experience with computers did not perform significantly better than those new to computer-assisted instruction. Further research needs to be conducted to determine the most appropriate place for computer-assisted instruction in agricultural education.

During the past 40 years, the United States has experienced the integration of the computer into society. Progress has been made to the point that small, inexpensive computers with expanded capabilities are available for innumerable uses. Many schools have purchased and ore purchasing microcomputers for infusion into their directed learning programs.

Most individuals seem to agree that the microcomputer will continue to hold an important role in education. Gubser (1980) and Hinton (1980) suggested phenomenal increases in the numbers of computers both in the school and the home in the near future. There are always problems with a sudden onslaught of new technology. like any new tool that has not been fully tried and tested, the role of the computer is in question. How should the computer be used in the classroom? Should the computer be the teacher or used as a tool in the classroom in the same way as on overhead projector? Can teachers do a better job of teaching certain types of materials with the microcomputer than with conventional teaching methods? Will the microcomputer hove different effects on students with varying levels of experience? Schmidt (1982) identified three types of microcomputer use in classrooms: the object of o course, a support tool, and a means of providing instruction. Foster and Kleene (1982) cite four uses of microcomputers in vocational agriculture: drill and practice, tutorial,

simulation and problem solving.

The findings of studies examining the use of various forms of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) have been mixed. Studies by Hickey (1968) and Honeycutt (1974) indicated superior results with CAI while studies by Ellis (1978), Coldwell (1980) and Belzer (1976) indicated little or no significant effect. Although much work has been done to date, more studies need to be conducted to ascertain the effects of microcomputer-assisted instruction in teaching various subjects in o variety of learning situations.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of using microcomputer-assisted instruction as compared to a lecture-discussion technique in teaching principles and methods of cost recovery and investment credit on agricultural assets to graduate students in agricultural education (Rohrbach, 1983). This topic was identified as being of importance to teachers in providing them the necessary background to teach lessons in form records.

Method

The study was conducted as a three-group controlled pre-experiment following the static-group comparison design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). It involved the use of three experimental groups, including a control Group A, a treatment group consisting of beginner-level microcomputer users Group B, and o treatment group consisting of intermediate-level microcomputer users Group C (see Table 1.1 ).

Table 1.1 Design of the Study

A Control n = 21 persons lecture-discussion technique 2 two-hour class sessions

Maximum of 4hours for

Evaluation by written tests

instruction

Maximum of 4hours of

B Treatment n = 25 persons Micro-computer-assisted instruction (no experience)

C Treatment n = 16 persons Micro-computer-assisted instruction (intermediate

experience)

Evaluation by written test Record of actual time used

instruction

Evaluation by written test Record of actual time used

Population

The population for the study consisted of graduate students in agricultural education at the University of Missouri-Columbia. Participants in the study were enrollees in courses offered through agricultural education at the University of Missouri-Columbia during the summer of 1983. This provided 21 students for control Group A, 25 students for beginning microcomputer Group Band 16 students for intermediate microcomputer Group C. The assumption was made that the participants represented a sample of graduate students in agricultural education. Therefore, the findings and implications of the study should be generalized to the extent that future groups of students are similar to the participants.

The 21 students designated as the control group were taught using a lecture-discussion technique. Forty-one students were divided into two treatment groups to receive microcomputer-assisted instruction. The class consisted of two sections with placement determined by previous microcomputing experience. Students with the ability to run and edit software programs were assigned to the intermediate-level group, and the remaining students were assigned to the beginners group.

Demographic data were collected from all subjects in relation to age, teaching experience, and knowledge and use of principles and methods relating to cost recovery and investment credit. Prior experience with the information was calculated on a nine-point scale.

Before receiving instruction, each group was introduced to the study by giving them the some orientation to the procedures to be used. It was explained that the learning sessions would be followed with a written evaluation on the material presented. They were told that the evaluation score would not count toward their grade in the course, but that it was important that they do as well as possible.

The classes comprising the control group were organized into two-hour doss sessions. The instructor used two-hour sessions on two consecutive days for teaching using a lecture-discussion technique. The written evaluation was given during the first hour of the third day.

The treatment groups were given general instructions about operating the microcomputer learning program and were told they could spend a maximum of four hours in the laboratory working with the microcomputer-assisted instruction. The instructor who taught the control group was in the microcomputer laboratory to respond to questions and monitor student progress. Students were given two days to complete the task, were asked to keep a record of the amount of time used, and were given the written evaluation during a one-hour time period of the third day.

Development of Materials and Instrument

The materials used in teaching principles and methods in cost recovery and investment credit with the lecture-discussion method hove been in place for three years and were the basis for writing a computer teaching program. The microcomputer learning modules, written in BASIC Language for the Apple lie microcomputer, contained the principles, methods, examples, objectives, problems and so forth to be learned by students in the segment of the doss devoted to cost recovery and investment credit. The modules were designed to present the concepts using the some problems and examples used in the lecture discussion procedure. All teaching materials and related microcomputer learning modules were checked for technical accuracy by a professor of agricultural economics responsible for preparing inservice materials related to tax law changes, a professor of agricultural education responsible for inservice education in farm management and a graduate research assistant in farm management.

The evaluation instrument used in the study was developed to measure the attainment of concepts in the learning package. The written evaluation was subjected to the Kuder-Richardson 20 test which yielded a reliability coefficient of .89. Validity of each question was established by a panel of experts with experience in teaching the concepts related to the material. There were 29 questions on the test which were worth one point each.

Null hypotheses were developed to test the research questions of the study. A one-way analysis of variance was used to test the first null hypothesis of no difference in performance among the groups (Ho1). Differences were isolated using the Scheffe post hoc procedure. A Pearson correlation coefficient was used to ascertain the relationship between time spent on microcomputer-assisted instruction and student performance (Ho2). Demographic data were examined to ascertain the homogeneity of the control group and experimental groups. An alpha level of .05 was used in testing the hypotheses. The data were analyzed with the Statistical Analysis System library computer package at the University of Missouri-Columbia (Ray, 1982).

Results

The age, teaching experience, prior experience with materials and time on task varied somewhat among groups as shown in Table 1.2. Time on task was held constant at 200 minutes for the control group, but ranged from 30 to 221 minutes for Group Band from 45 to 180 minutes for Group C.

Table 1.2 Characteristics of Participants

Age (years)

Experience (years)

Prior

Experience with Materials

Control Group A Treatment Group B Treatment Group C Total

32.6

22-53

8.3

0-25

4.34

0-9

136.3

30-221

35.6

24-50

11.4

1-24

4.81

0-9

90.4

45-180

33.0

22-44

8.4

0-17

4.08

0-9

112.2

30-221

N 21

Mean 29.8

Range 22-53

Mean 5.9

Range 0-25

Mean 4.29

Range 0-9

Mean 200

Range 200-200

Minutes

Teaching

Relative

Time on Task

To help explain differences in student scores, correlational coefficients were calculated to ascertain if there were significant relationships between scores on the test and the subjects' age, prior experience with material, and years of teaching experience. As shown in Table 1.3, there was a significant positive relationship between prior experience or knowledge of the material and test scores (i.e., more prior experience influenced o higher test score). When prior experience scores (from Table 1.2) were compared on a group-by-group basis, Group Awes not found to differ significantly at the .05 level from Groups B or C ( + values of .212 for A-B and 4. 93 for A-C).

Table 1.3 Correlation Coefficients for Test Scores with Prior Experience with Material, Age and

Years of Teaching Experience

(n) Prior Experience with Material

(r)

Control Group A Treatment Group B Treatment Group C All Students

21 25 16 62

.639 .670 .658 .563

-.522 .166 -.102 -.242 Age (r)

Years of Teaching Experience

(r) -.447 .239 .040 -.162

Note. Critical value at the .05 level of significance = .25.

Each experimental group was given the same written test after being subjected to the lecture-discussion or microcomputer-assisted instruction sessions as outlined in the design and procedures of the study. Mean scores and general results from each of the three groups ore presented in Table 1.4, and the results of the analysis of variance test are reported in Table 1.5.

Table 1.4 Test Scores of Control and Experimental Groups

Control Group A Treatment Group B Treatment Group C All students

17.08

6.294

16.25

6.923

47.933

14.16

5.080

25.807

N 21

Mean Score 21.19

Standard Deviation 4.996

24.962

Low Score

High Score

Variance

Table 1.5 Analysis of Variance for Differences among Control and Treatment Group Scores Source Model Error Corrected Total

df 2 59 61

SS 578.990 1837.598 2416.597

The F value of 9.29, reported in Table 1.5, indicated a significant difference in group mean scores. The Scheffe test was used to isolate more specifically where those differences occurred. There was a significant difference between the control group and each of the CAI groups. There was not a significant difference found between the two CAI groups. The test scores from the control group were higher than from either treatment group.

A Pearson correlation coefficient of -.016 indicated no significant relationship between time spent with the microcomputer-assisted instruction and test scores of students.

Discussion

Our first hypothesis, that there would be no significant difference among group mean scores, was rejected. However, our second hypothesis, that there would be no significant relationship between the amount of time utilized by the students with microcomputer-assisted instruction and students' test scores, was not rejected.

The following conclusions are subject to the conditions and limitations of this study: (a) the lecture-discussion approach was more effective than the microcomputer instruction in teaching the application of principles and concepts; (b) experience with the microcomputer had no effect on test scores, so it appears that the microcomputer-assisted learning modules were as easy for the beginners to use as for the intermediate-level users; and (c) the amount of time spent by students subjected to the microcomputer-assisted instruction did not significantly affect their scores when given freedom to select the amount of time spent.

The influence of prior experience with the subject matter was examined in two ways. As

F 9.29

PR < F 0.0003

expected, there was a positive correlation between experience and student scores. However, there was not a significant difference for prior experience between Group Aand treatment Groups B and C. Therefore, it does not appear that prior experience with subject matter was a confounding variable in this study.

The findings indicated that the lecture-discussion method of teaching was more effective than the microcomputer-assisted technique in teaching the principles and concepts presented under the conditions described. Given a choice, students in the microcomputer groups spent less time than did the students in the control group. Students in the control group were taught during regular hours while the treatment groups participated during laboratory time.

Since most studies indicated that students using CAI have generally performed as well or better than students under conventional instruction, the implication is that the difference in performance found in this study should be carefully evaluated. The findings might have been different if all students had spent a minimum of four hours using the computer program. Additional studies should compare groups using a mix of traditional instruction and CAI and should require groups to spend a specific amount of time on task. The challenge for agricultural educators is to better utilize the ca-pabilities of microcomputer assisted instruction in the learning environment.

References

Belzer, T. J. (1976): A comparative study of a traditional lecture method and a group paced,

multimedia, non-lecture method used in teaching college biology (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 133 026).

Caldwell, R. M. (1980). A comparison of using computer-based education to teach literacy and

numeracy skills to CETA and non-CETA participants enrolled in programs of adult basic education (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 194 721).

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963).Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research.

Chicago: Rand McNally.

Ellis, J. A. (1978). A comparative evaluation of computer-managed and instructor-managed

instruction (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 165 705).

Foster, R., &Kleene, M. (1982). Opportunities with computer assisted instruction. The Agricultural

Education Magazine, Gubser, L. (1980). Schools of education—a time for revolution (ERIC

Document Reproduction Service No.ED 195 524).

Hickey, A. E. (1968).Computer-assisted instruction: A survey of the literature. Newburyport, MA:

ENTELEK.

Hinton, J. R. (1980). Individualized learning using microcomputer CA! (ERIC Document

Reproduction Service No.ED 196 409).

Honeycutt, J. K. (1974). The effects of computer managed instruction on content learning of

undergraduate students (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 089 682). Ray, A. S. (Ed.). (1982). SAS user's guide: Statistics. Cory, NC: SAS Institute.

Rohrbach, N.F. (1983). Microcomputer use in teaching graduate students in agricultural

education.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia.

Schmidt, J. R. (1982). Computer utilization of resident instruction at the land grant university.Unpublished manuscript, North Central Computer Institute, Madison.

WHAT HAVE YOU OBSERVED?

1. How many major sections does this experimental research report contain? Are all of these

sections indicated by headings? Which major section does not have a heading?

2. What kind of information does each major section contain? Do any major sections have more

than one kind of information? Which ones?

3. How does the format of this report compare with the general model in Figure 1.1?

Formulating a Research Question

Although it rarely appears in the final report itself, the research question is the basis on which the study is planned and carried out. After researchers have focused on a specific topic of investigation, they formulate a question that addresses a specific aspect of the topic in which they are interested. For example, if researcher is interested in studying the effect of industrial pollution on plant life in a particular area, he or she might formulate a question like the following:

RESEARCH QUESTION: What are the effects of increased concentrations of sulfuric acid in the

atmosphere on production of grain sorghum?

Asked another way, the same topic could be addressed through a different question:

RESEARCH QUESTION: Do increased concentrations of sulfuric acid in the atmosphere lead to

significant decreases in the production of grain sorghum?

Formulating a Hypothesis

In formal research work, it is necessary to formulate a statement of expected results. This is called the hypothesis. The hypothesis is a possible response to the research question. For example, a hypothesis based on the research question in the previous section might look like this:

HYPOTHESIS: Abnormally high concentrations of sulfuric acid in the atmosphere have no effect

on the production of grain sorghum.

When the hypothesis is stated in this negative way, it is called the null hypothesis (H0). The purpose of the experiment is to determine whether the hypothesis can be rejected or not. We take a closer look at how the research question (and the hypothesis) is presented in the research report in Chapter 4. EXERCISE 1.1 Analysis

Look back at the previous report on microcomputers in teaching. Determine the research question and locate the hypotheses. Then write them out in the following spaces.

1. 2.

Research Question: _________________________________________________ Hypotheses. _______________________________________________________

Are the hypotheses stated as null hypotheses? Yes __________________ No ___________________

(Remember that in many journal articles the hypotheses are not often stated explicitly, as they are in this article.)

EXERCISE 1.2 Analysis

A complete research report from the field of psychology is reproduced here as it appeared in a journal article. However, the headings and spaces that separated the original article into its major sections have been omitted. Read the report carefully and decide where each major section begins and ends. Then label each section with the appropriate heading.

BIAS IN EYEWITNESS ACCOUNTS:

THE EFFECTS OF QUESTION FORMAT, DELAY INTERVAL, AND STIMULUS

PRESENTATION Thomas J. Lipscomb Hunter A. McAllister Norman J. Bregman Department of Psychology Southeastern Louisiana University

One of the three representations of a staged automobile collision was shown to 180 students from introductory psychology classes. We then questioned the students about details of the accident, using either marked or unmarked modifiers. Half the students were questioned immediately afterviewing the stimulus material and half after a 20-min delay. The results

indicated that estimates of the magnitude of a number of aspects of the collision were significantly greater when unmarked modifiers were used in phrasing the relevant questions. Students who were questioned after the 20-miri delay gave significantly greater estimates of monetary damagethan the students who answered immediately after viewing the representation. The nature of the stimulus material had inconsistent but significant effects.

In recent years, there has been a dramatic proliferation of researchconcerned with the accuracy and reliability of eyewitness reports. [15]

This research has documented the importance of a

number of variables of which one of the most interesting and powerful is exposure toposteventinformation, which includes all additional related information to which a person is exposed after witnessing an event. Loftus and Palmer (1974) reported that the nature of questions asked awitness could systematically affect the report of details of that event.Subjects viewed films of automobile collisions and subsequentlywere quizzed about the speeds at which the vehicles involved were traveling. Speed estimates varied with the verb used in the interrogatory sentence. Specifically, estimates of the magnitude of speedwere altered when the verbs smashed, collided, bumped, hit, andcontacted were employed. These verbs were apparently interpretedas implying different degrees of contact and caused the different estimates. Similar results have been obtained by varying the adverbemployed (Lipscomb, Bregman, & McAllister, in press). Loftus and Palmer have consistently argued that these effects are the result of an alteration of the memory of the witnessed event produced by the introduction of postevent information. Although such an explanalion is consistent with available data, so too is a somewhat moreparsimonious explanation.

The effect of postevent information embedded in the phrasing of the question may produce a response bias independent of memory alteration. This simpler explanation is tenable as the result of astudy reported by Harris (1973). Harris obtained responses to questions that varied according to whether a \or \modifier was employed. An unmarked modifier implies that a property such as height or length possesses an indefinite upper limit. The marked modifier carries no such implication. Harris asked subjectsto give numerical responses to a set of 32 questions employing 16pairs of marked and unmarked adjectives and adverbs. For example, subjects were asked, \heavy was the set of weights?\of the 16 modifier pairs, the subjects' mean numerical estimateswere in the predicted direction. These were hypothetical questions,however; no concrete stimuli were involved, and therefore, there was no possibility that memory was involved.

Other research by Loftus, Miller, and Burns (1978) has revealed that a further variable affecting the reliability of eyewitnessaccounts is the time lapse between the event and the introduction ofpostevent information. Therefore, one might expect that modifiers used in a question introducing postevent information would have more influence on the eyewitness after a time lapse than modifiers introduced immediately after the event.

A final issue relevant to the present study is the nature of thestimulus material itself. Although voluminous studies of memory document the importance of this variable, little has been done to determine how the nature of stimulus material might affect eyewitness reports. It is reasonable to propose, however, that informationpresented in a more complete format would be less vulnerable

tocontaminating effects than material that was partial in nature.

The present study examined the role of three variables on estimates of details of an automobile collision. These variables were (a) the adjective used in phrasing a question (marked vs. unmarked),(b) the format of the stimulus material (a complete videotaped sequence or an incomplete videotaped sequence or an audio stimulus only), and (c) the delay interval (immediate or following a 20-min delay).

A2 ? 2 ? 3 between-subjects factorial design was employed. A Sony video-cassette recorder/player (model SLO-340) and a 19-in, black and white video monitor were employed to present three representations of an automobile accident described previously byBregman and McAllister (1982). The complete version lasted for 12sand depicted two automobiles colliding at an intersection. The sequence showed a station wagon (Car 1) striking a compact car (Car 2) in the right rear panel and the compact spinning around from the impact. The sequence was followed by a close-up view of the damage sustained by both cars in the collision. (At impact, both carswere traveling approximately 25 mph.) The sounds of engine acceleration and the impact of the collision were clearly audible. The abbreviated 8-s version showed the cars accelerating and colliding and contained the audio-only stimulus.

We recruited 180 students (90 males, 90 females) from introductory psychology classes. The students were divided into groups of three and were exposed to one of three types of stimulus mate-rial. They were questioned and debriefed individually. Half the students were questioned immediately after being exposed to the stimulus material, and the other half engaged in a filler activity (readinga Reader's Digest story) for 20 min prior to questioning. The students were asked to estimate the speed at which each of the cars was traveling at impact on a 5-point scale (from very fast to very slow) and to provide an estimate in miles per hour. The phrasing of the questionsvaried with the experimental condition; half were questioned usinga marked adverb (slow) and half with an unmarked adverb (fast). Students then completed a parallel questionnnaire in a Likert-type format requiring responses on an 11-point scale. There were 13 questions, including some that related to physical damage, manetory damage, and personal injury. Each question employed either amarked or an unmarked adverb.

The data, analyzed by multivariate analysis of variance, resulted in significant effects for stimulus, F(26, 314) = 1.93 p<.005, and for modifier, F(13, 156) = 3.124, p < .001. Separate analyses

of variance were then performed, yielding several significant effects. Estimations of the speed of both cars were significantly greater when the unmarked adverb fast was employed as compared to the marked adverb slow (see Table 1.6). Similarly, estimates of the extent of damage, skidding, noise, and

harm to occupants were allsignificantly greater when the relevant questions were phrased withunmarked as opposed to marked adverbs (see Table 1.6). Students who were questioned after the 20-min delay estimated greater monetary damage to both cars than those who were questioned immediately following exposure to the stimulus material, F(1, 168) = 5.5, p< .02, for Car 1; F(1, 168) = 8.93, p< .003, for Car 2 (see Table 1.7). The speed of Car 1 was estimated to have been significantly greater by students who were questioned immediately followingexposure. Exposure to the complete version of the stimulus exertedsignificant but inconsistent effects on estimates of damage to Car 2, F(2, 168) = 3.36, p< .037; noise, F(2, 168) = 4.71, p< .01; and skidding of Car 2, F(2, 168) = 7.17, p <.001.

Table 1.6 Mean Estimates and Analysis of Variance Summary as a Function of Adverb Employed

Question and unit of measurement

How was Car 1going? (mph) How was Car 1going? (scale) How was Car 2 going? (mph) How was Car 2 going? (scale) How damage was done to Car 1? How werethe skid marks made by Car 1? How noise occurred as a result of the accident? How bruises do you think the driver of Car 1

suffered?

How bruises do you think the driver of Car 2

suffered?

Modifier Fasta Slow Fast Slow Fast Slow Fast Slow Much Little Long Short Much Little Many Short Many Short

M 36.20 27.50 3.62 b 2.56 b 39.76 35.25 3.52 b 3.31 b 6.27 c 5.40 c 5.04 c 3.88 c 7.44 c 6.52 c 5.22 c 3.85 c 5.27 c 4.47 c

F 23.7 3.93 5.86 4.08 9.43 11.20 7.62 c 13.16 5.35

P <.0001 <.05 <.017 <.05 <.002 <.001 <.006 <.0001 <.022

unmarked adverb is reported first for each comparison. bValuescould range from 1 to 5. cValues

could range from 1 to 11.

Table 1.7 Mean Estimates of Speed and Monetary Damage as a Function of Delay Interval

Estimate Speed of Car 1 Monetary damage to Car 1

Immediate 5.2 a $659.27

Delay 4.6 a $1,041.19

Monetary damage to Car 2

$688.96 $1,104.11

Values could range from 1 to 11.

Results of the present study represent the most complete documentation to date that in obtaining estimates of aspects of a complex event from witnesses, the way a question is phased can dramatically affect the estimates. In the present study, the use of unmarked adverbs,implying no upper limit, resulted in higher estimates of the extent ofproperty damage, personal injury, noise, and skidding. In fact, the unidirectional nature of this effect and the fact that it occurred across such a broad range of dependent measures is striking. The implication for the legal system is clear. Phrasing of questions byofficers of the court may significantly affect various aspects of witnesses’ verbal reports. The issue of whether this effect is the result of an alteration of the memory of the event, or due to a response bias operating independent of memory alteration remains unresolved. But our results suggest that this effect is the result of a response biasbecause no interaction between delay interval and the manner inwhich the question was phrased or between delay interval and stimulus format was obtained.

The results of the present study suggest two dimensions that might profitably be addressed by future researchers in the area.First, the delay employed in the present study was quite short (20min). The use of longer delay intervals—days or weeks—might produce quite different results. Second, a more definitive test of whether effects of the manner in which a question is phrased are due to alter-ation in memory or are simply the result of response bias would beto include conditions in which no stimulus was present. If an effect isobtained with no stimulus, clearly that effect could not be due to memory alteration.

Bregman, N. J., & McAllister, H. A. (1982). Eyewitness testimony: The role of commitment in

increasing reliability. Social Psychology Quartet-6f, 45, 181-184.

Harris, R. J. (1973). Answering questions containing marked and unmarked adjectives and

adverbs.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 97, 399-401.

Lipscomb, T. J., Bregman, N. J. & McAllister, H. A. (in press). A developmental inquiry into the

effects of postevent information on eyewitness accounts. Journal of Genetic Psychology. Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. C., & Burns, H. J. (1978).Semantic integration of verbal information into a

visual memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 19-33.

Loftus, E. F. 8 Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the

interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585-589.

==================================================================

EXERCISE 1.3 Library

1. Find the name of a professional journal in your field of study that publishes reports of experimental

research.

2. Go to your library and locate this journal in the list of serial holdings. Write down the library call

number for the journal.

3. Find a recent issue of the journal and locate in it an article reporting on a topic that interests you and

that you can understand. Photocopy the complete article and write down all the bibliographic information: name of journal, year, volume number, and page numbers.

4. Examine your article in terms of its genera! format. Is the format similar to or different from the

diagram in Figure 1.1 on page 3? In what ways does it differ? 5. Read the research report carefully and answer the following questions:

a. What research question were the authors trying to answer? b. Can you formulate a hypothesis that would answer this question?

c. What type of study did they design: controlled experiment, correlational study, survey questionnaire, or some other kind?

6. In your opinion, is the report well organized and easy to read?

INTEGRATION

EXERCISE 1.4 Writing Up Your Own Research

The best way to benefit from this book is to conduct an actual experimental research project and then to write up the results. Perhaps you are currently involved in a research project. If you are not, the following exercise will help you get practical experience in carrying out and writing up experimental research.

1. By yourself, or with a group of classmates, choose an area of interest that you would like to

research. Limit this area to a specific topic that will produce numerical data. Following are some examples of possible research topics.

a. A survey of the most common adjustment problem encountered by different groups of international

students on an American university campus.

b. An analysis of the most important language skills needed by international students at an American

university (as perceived by students and/or their professors).

c. An inventory of the kinds of language errors considered most serious by professors in the written

English of their students.

d. A determination of the kinds of factors international students take into account when they select a

university to attend in a foreign country.

2. Write a research question that focuses on one aspect of your topic. 3. Formulate a hypothesis that is a possible response to your research question.

4. With the help of your instructor, design a study that will permit you to answer your research question.

5. Determine the type of materials you will need in order to carry out your study.

6. If necessary, ask an experienced researcher to check the hypothesis and design of your study, and to determine what kind of statistical analysis should be done to interpret your data.

CHECKLIST FOR CHAPTER 1

RESEARCH REPORT FORMAT ——Abstract. ——Introduction. ——Method. ——Results. ——Discussion.

STEPS IN BEGINNING THE RESEARCH PROCESS ——Select an area of interest. ——Focus on one aspect of the area. ——Write a research question. ——Formulate a hypothesis. ——Design the study.

2 INTRODUCTION:Establishing a Context

OVERVIEW

In this and the next two chapters we focus on the first part of the experimental research report, the introduction. The introduction serves as an orientation for readers of the report, giving them the

perspective they need to understand the detailed information coming in later sections.

The introduction can be divided into five parts, or stages. In Stage I, the writer establishes a context, or frame of reference, to help readers understand how the research fits into a wider field of study. We examine and practice Stage I, the setting, in this chapter.

FIGURE 2.1 The setting (Stage 1).

INFORMATION CONVENTIONS

The Five Stages

In order to better understand the function of Stage I, the setting, let us begin by briefly looking at all five stages of an introduction. Following is the introduction to the research report about computers in education that we saw in Chapter 1. Notice that it contains five distinct stages.

Stage I

Stage II

Stage III

Stage IV

USING MICROCOMPUTERS IN TEACHING

Although much work has been done to date, more studies need to be conducted to ascertain the effects of microcomputer-assisted instruction in teaching various subjects in o variety of learning situations.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of using

microcomputer-assisted instruction as compared to a lecture-discussion technique in teaching principles and methods of cost recovery and investment credit on agricultural assets to graduate students in agricultural education (Rohrbach, 1983).

Stage V

This topic was identified as being of importance to teachers in providing them the necessary background to teach lessons in form records.

WHAT HAVE YOU OBSERVED?

1. What do you think is the purpose of each of the five stages in this introduction? 2. Why do you think the writers put the five stages in this particular order?

3. Do you think this order of information could be used for writing introductions in other fields, or is it valid only for education?

4. Which stage is the longest? Can you see any reason for this? Ordering your Information

The preceding example is typical of introductions to experimental research reports in many different fields in terms of (1) the kinds of information it provides to the reader and (2) the order in which the information is sequenced. Figure 2,2 illustrates this sequence.

FIRST STAGE: General statement(s) about a field of research to provide the reader with a setting for the problem to be reported

SECOND STAGE: More specific statements about the aspects of the problem already studied by other researchers

THIRD STAGE: Statement(s) that indicate the need for more investigation

FOURTH STAGE: Very specific statement(s) giving the purpose/objectives of the writer's study FIFTH STAGE: Optional statement(s) that give a value or justification for carrying out the study

FIGURE 2.2 The fives stages of the introduction.

EXERCISE 2.1 Analysis

Following is an example of an introduction from the field of psychology. After reading it, identify which sentences correspond to four of the five stages we have discussed.

EYE MOVEMENTS WHILE WATCHING A BASEBALL PITCH

Many motor skills require action based on rapid change in the environment. 2One such skill is

baseball batting. 3The baseball baiter relies most heavily on vision for pertinent information.

Moreover, a good pitcher will attempt to give the hitter misleading cues during the wind-up and

delivery. 5Visual-search strategies must be usedbya batter to sample relevant locations in the visual display so response can be made at the proper time.

Research has shown that visual-search patterns can be governed by avariety of factors including

experience. 7Mourand and Rockwell (1972) examined the visual-search strategies used by six novice and four expert drivers. 8Novice drivers sampled their mirrors and instruments more frequently than did expert drivers. 9Onthe freeway, novice drivers made smooth pursuit movements while the experts made only eye fixations.

Bard, Fleury, Carriere, and Halle (1980) examined the visual-search patterns of expert and

novice gymnastic judges. 11They found that the expert judges had 27% fewer fixations than novice judges. 12Eye fixations also differed for novice and expert basketball players. 13 Bard and Fleury (1976) showed slides of typical offensive basketball situations to players and recorded their eye

movements/fixations. 14Expert players made fewer fixations than novices.

The informational content of various portions of a baseball's trajectory from pitcher to baiter

has been debated but most of the research has focused on the terminal portion of the ball flight. 16The purpose of the present study was to examine the visual-search strategies of expert and novice baseball players during the preparatory phase (wind-up and release of the pitch) of baseball hitting. 17A second goal was to document the existence of an eye-movement reaction time prior to the eyes tracking the pitch.

Stage I (the setting): Stage II (already studied): Stage III (investigation needed): Stage IV (purpose):

Stage V (value) does not appear in this report.

Writers do not always arrange the stages of their introductions in this exact order. Sometimes a writer interrupts one stage with another, and then returns to the earlier stage. Sometimes Stage II (usually called \(In theses and dissertations, for example, it is often written as a separate chapter.) Stage V is often omitted entirely, as we saw in the preceding example. However, the general plan given here is very common and is the easiest for the beginning research writer to use. Inventing the Setting

You should write the setting (Stage I) of your introduction so that it provides your readers with the background necessary to see the particular topic of your research in relation to a general area of study. In order to do this, start with obvious, generally accepted statements about the area in which you are working. Then, step by step, move the reader closer to your specific topic. You may do this in just a few sentences or in several paragraphs.

You can think of this stage as a process of first, establishing a \isolating one \within this universe; and finally, leading your readers to one \in the

Sentence(s) ______________________ Sentence(s) ______________________ Sentence(s) ______________________ Sentence(s) ______________________

galaxy. That \the galaxy is \

STAGE I: The Setting 1. Begin with accepted statements of fact related to your general area (your \2. Within the general area, identify one subarea (your \your topic). 3. Indicate your topic (your \

EXERCISE 2.2 Analysis

Following is an example of Stage I from the introduction to a research report about waste-water treatment. Read the selection and then answer the questions which follow.

THE USES OF DUCKWEED IN WASTE-WATER TREATMENT

Clean water is a basic human need. 2Its discovery, transport, and systematic renewal have

always been crucial to all but the least densely populated societies. 3lncreasing population and industrial wastes, together with diminishing sources of easily available energy with which to manage them, are converging to emphasize that all the earth's resources are finite. 4But the supply of clean water, though also finite, is at least infinitely renewable.

Among the various approaches to improving present technologies for waste-water treatment,

several involve the use of plants, which can remove pollutants and provide materials useful as animal feeds or energy sources. 6Various aquatic plants are being proposed in such approaches, and the duckweeds in particular, an essentially unique group of higher aquatic plants, might be especially advantageous in such systems.

1. Which sentences in the preceding introduction make obvious statements or statements that would be accepted as fact concerning the general area?

2. Which sentence focuses on one subarea of the general area of study?

3. Which sentence indicates the authors' topic?

Linking Ideas through Old and New Information Order

To lead readers smoothly through the ideas in Stage I, writers link sentences by making use of old and new information. This is done by placing old information—that is, information already known to the reader—at the beginning of sentences and placing new information at the end.

Plants obtain atmospheric CO2 required for photosynthesis bydiffusion through open leaf stomates. Old New While this is taking place, water in the leaf parenchymatissues evaporates into the substomatalcavities and diffusesthrough the open stomates intothe atmosphere. This process can create large water potential differences between the leaves and the soil surrounding the roots.

EXERCISE 2.3 Analysis

The following statements are adapted from the setting (Stage I) of an introduction to a research report about ice on rivers. The sentences are not presented in their correct order. Do the following: 1. Number the sentences in the order you believe they appeared in the original introduction, using

old information and level of generality to guide you.

2. For each sentence, indicate whether it makes a statement about the general area, a subarea, or the

author's topic.

RIVER ICE

A. ____________ Water regularly changes back and forth from liquid togas to solid.

B. _________________ River ice constitutes a small fraction of the total quantity of ice in the world.

C. ____________ The solid phase of water takes many forms.

D. ____________ Water is one of the most important substances onearth.

E. F.

E.Solid forms of water range from small snowflakes toimmense polar ice caps. F. Water makes man's survival possible and supports histransportation needs.

3. Now go back and underline the old information in sentences 2 through 6.

EXERCISE 2.4 Library

In the library, locate a journal article, thesis, or dissertation reporting research findings in your area of interest. Find Stage I of the introduction (the setting), photocopy it, and analyze it by answering the following questions: 1. 2.

Does the introduction contain a Stage 1? How many sentences does it consist of?

Does the Stage I contain the types of statements we have discussed here? Identify which

sentences,in your example correspond to the kinds of statements shown in the box on page 24 depicting Stage I.

Do any of the sentences in your Stage I contain a reference to another work?

Does the author use old information at the beginning of sentences to link ideas? Find some examples and underline them.

LANGUAGE CONVENTIONS

General and Specific Noun Phrases

As we have seen, Stage I of the introduction usually begins with factual statements about the general area which includes your specific topic. When you write these kinds of general statements, it is conventional to use nouns that refer to objects or concepts at the highest possible level of generality. English offers several ways to construct these general nouns, which we examine in this section. SEE WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW Pretest

A Stage I selection is given here from the field of geology. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word. Some blanks do not require filling in.

THE TRANSPORT AND SORTING OF DIAMONDS BY FLUVIALAND MARINE PROCESSES

In the late 1940s, production of diamonds from alluvial sources represented about 40 percent of

the world total. 2Thirtyyears later, alluvial diamond hadmore than doubled, and despite development of majornew kimberlite mines, it still represented more than 30 percent ofthe total natural diamond production.3 economic importance of alluvial is thus considerable,and it is

alluvial diamonds are of consistently higher quality than

further emphasized by the fact that diamonds recovered from source kimberlites, and also because certain countries (e.g., Sierra Leone, Central African Republic), are economically dependent on production of .

Generic Noun Phrases

Statements in the setting of an introduction tend to be general in nature. Instead of referring to

specific things, they often refer to entire classes of things. When you write sentences that contain nouns referring to an entire class of things, you should use generic noun phrases to carry this meaning. Generic noun phrases refer to all members of a particular class of living things, objects like \

In English there are different ways to write generic noun phrases. If the noun is countable, you can make it generic by adding the plural marker -s and omitting any article, or by using it in its singular form with the indefinite article a oran.

GENERIC NOUN PHRASES: Countable Nouns EXAMPLE: Alluvial diamonds are of consistently higher quality than diamonds recovered from source kimberlites. (plural) EXAMPLE: A new diamond mine may take several years before coming into full production. (singular, meaning \new diamond mine\When the noun you want to use is uncountable, you can make it generic by omitting any article. (Of course, uncountable nouns never take a plural -s.)

GENERIC NOUN PHRASES: Uncountable Nouns EXAMPLE: Thirty years later, alluvial diamond production had more than doubled. (meaning \

EXERCISE 2.5 Analysis

Look at the first two sentences of a report from the field of psychology. Indicate if each of the generic noun phrases underlined is countable (plural or singular) or uncountable by placing a C or U above the phrase. The first one is done for you.

Happiness is one of the six human emotions said to be universally present and understood. 2A smile, one of the expressions of emotion that appears to be universally exhibited and understood, is thought to be sensitive to social context and to be shaped by social factors.

In addition, English has a fourth way of forming generic nouns you should learn to recognize and use. A countable noun in its singular form sometimes carries the generic meaning when used with the definite article the. This kind of generic noun phrase is often used when referring to living creatures or familiar machinery and equipment.

GENERIC NOUN PHRASES: Countable Nouns with the EXAMPLE: The hummingbird can be found in all areas of North America. (meaning \EXAMPLE: The United States has experienced the integration of the computer into society. (meaning \Specific Noun Phrases

We have seen that the first part of Stage I, the setting of the introduction, usually contains a large proportion of generic noun phrases. Later in the setting, you will probably find it necessary to refer to specific items and concepts in order to move the reader from the general area toward your specific topic. This requires the use of specific noun phrases—that is, nouns that refer to particular, individual members of a class rather than to the class as a whole. In English, nouns with this meaning can be written in several ways.

1. Referring to assumed or shared information. Use the definite article the if you assume your

readers share knowledge of the specific thing you are referring to.

SPECIFIC NOUN PHRASES: Referring to Shared Information EXAMPLE: In recent years the growth of desert areas has been accelerating in the world. 2. Pointing back to old information. Use the definite article the when referring to a specific thing

which you have already mentioned (the first mention usually uses the indefinite article a/an).

SPECIFIC NOUN PHRASES: Pointing Back to Old Information EXAMPLE. New Mexico Solar Energy Institute is developing a computerized diagnostic assistant for solar domestic hot water systems. The computer-implemented assistant will be used at naval shore facilities throughout the world. 3. Pointing forward to specifying information. Use the definite article the when the specific meaning is

made clear in a following phrase or clause.

SPECIFIC NOUN PHRASES: Pointing Forward to SpecifyingInformation EXAMPLE: The gas which is produced in the western states is used primarily for home heating.

EXERCISE 2.6 Analysis

Look at this Stage 1 from the introduction to the study about river ice. Some of the specific nouns are underlined. For each underlined noun, identify the preceding or the following information which makes the meaning of the noun specific. Do this by drawing an arrow from the specifying information to the noun. The first sentence is done for you.

RIVER ICE

Water is one of the most intriguing substances on the earth. 2Not only is man dependent upon it

for life, but it also has the interesting property that its freezing point is within the range of the earth's surface temperature variation for significant parts of the year. 3Thus its state regularly changes back

and forth from liquid to gas to solid. 4The solid phase takes on a myriad of forms, fromsmall, fragile snowflakes to the immense masses of the Greenland and Antarctic ice-taps, which contain 95% of the world's fresh water. 50f particular interest is that part of the world's ice which occurs on rivers.

Guidelines for Marking Generic and Specific Noun Phrases

If you are having difficulty determining which, if any, article to use before a noun or noun phrase, ask yourself the following sequence of questions: 1. 2.

Is the noun meant in a general or a specific sense? If it is specific, use \is general, ask yourself a follow-up question:

Is the noun countable or uncountable? If it is countable, use a or an (singular) or -s on the end (plural). If it is uncountable, use 0 (no article or -s ending).

YOUR NOUN PHRASE ↙↘ 1. GENERAL? UNCOUNTABLE? ? ? COUNTABLE? ? a/an (singular) -s (plural) FIGURE 2.3

?? 2 .SPECIFIC? ? the (add -s if plural) EXERCISE 2.7 Completion

Following is Stage I from a report in mechanical engineering. Fill in the blanks with the articles a, an, the, or the plural -s where necessary. Some of the blanks do not require filling in.

DESIGN OF ALUMINUMBICYCLEFRAMES

Recent concerns about expenditure of energy_for human transportation_ have accentuated

States.

need formore efficient passenger vehicle .2The result has been an unprecedented increase in use of lightweight structuralmaterials in _______ manufacture of automobile_ in United

Another result has been increased popularity of bicycle_ for practical transport.

With _______________ large interest in bicycle transportation, research has been

conducted at _____________ University ofCalifornia, Davis in recent years to develop ________________________ lightweight aluminum bicycle. 5 Aluminum_ was chosen because preliminary calculation_ showed that weight could be reduced whileincreasing frame efficiency. 6 _ Efficiency_ indicates ________ ability of a frame to absorb as small an amount of energy as possible from ____________________ total usable effort during pedaling. 7Hence, delivers almost all usable

rider effort to the drive train with very little energy going into

Expressing Old Information

There are various ways you can state old information to connect back to the information in a previous sentence. One way is to simply repeat a word or to use a derived form of the word.

distortion of frame.

highly efficient frame

EXPRESSING OLD INFORMATION: Word Repetitionand Derivation EXAMPLE' Approximately three years ago, an apparently new and unexplained disorder called acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) was recognized. Characteristically, AIDS is associated with a progressive depletion of T cells. EXAMPLE: Of interest is that part of the world's ice which occurs on rivers. Although river ice forms only a fraction of the total quantity of ice in the world, it has significance. Another way you can indicate old information is to use pronouns and pointing words,

EXPRESSING OLD INFORMATION: Pronounsand Pointing Words EXAMPLE: Water is one of the most intriguing substances on earth. It has the interesting property that its freezing point is within the range of the earth's surface temperature variation for significant parts of the year. EXAMPLE: Ice forms when water is cooled to 0°C and continues to lose heat. Generally, this happens when the air temperature falls below 0°C. Sometimes you can assume the reader knows the old information without your having to state it explicitly.

IMPLIED OLD INFORMATION EXAMPLE. Curly top virus can be a serious problem in tomatoes. The incidence [of curly top virus] varies from year to year. EXAMPLE: Withholding or withdrawing life-supporting treatment is one of the most important ethical issues for medicine in the late twentieth century. At least six physicians have been accused of murder [to give you one example of the ethical consequences involved in withholding or withdrawing treatment] this year alone.

EXERCISE 2.8 Completion

Following is an excerpt from Stage I of a student thesis in civil engineering. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate old information.

DEVELOPMENT OF A RAINFALL-RUNOFF MODEL

Hydrology is based on the water cycle, most commonlycalled the hydrologic cycle.

isvisualized as beginning with the evaporation of water from the oceans and continental lands. 3The resultingis condensed to form clouds, which in turn may result in precipitated water, or precipitation. 4

whichfalls upon the land is dispersed in several ways. 5A large portion is temporarily retained in

the soil near where it falls and is ultimately returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration ofplants. 6 of the precipitated water,called runoff, finds its way over and through the surface soil tostream channels, while penetratesinto the ground to become part of the earth's groundwater supply.

EXERCISE 2.9. Identification

Read the setting (Stage 1) from an introduction to a report about the process of simulating rainfall in arid lands. Then go back and underline each noun phrase. Underline generic noun phrases once and specific noun phrases twice.

A PORTABLE RAINFALL SIMULATOR AND RUNOFF SAMPLER

Field research on the interactions between soil and water commonly depends on natural rainfall or on some form of simulated rainfall. 2Dependence on natural rainfall limits research because neither the timing nor the characteristics of a rain are known until it is over. 3This problem is particularly serious in arid and semiarid areas where precipitation is infrequent and erratic. 4With a rainfall

simulator,

investigator can control

the

frequency, rates, and intensities of the rainfall in his studies.

EXERCISE

2.10 Fill-in

The Stage I paragraph about rainfall simulation is given below again. This time, without looking back at the original, fill in each blank space with the plural marker -s, a oran, or the where necessary. Some of the blanks do not require filling in.

A PORTABLE RAINFALL SIMULATOR AND RUNOFF SAMPLER

Field research_ on the interactions between soil andwater_ commonly depends either

onnaturalrainfall_ or on some form ofsimulated rainfall_ .2Dependence onnatural rainfall_ limits research because neither timing norcharacteristic_ ofa rain are known until it is over. 3This problem is particularly serious in arid and semiarid area_ where precipitation_ is infrequent and erratic. 4With rainfallsimulator_ ,investigator_ can control the frequency,rates, and intensities of rainfall in his studies.

EXERCISE 2.11 Reconstruction

The same setting you have been practicing with is again given here, but this time sentences are indicated only by lists of key words. Without referring to the original, try to reconstruct one sentence from each list. Add all necessary words and word endings and write each group out as a complete sentence in the spaces provided. The key words are grouped and listed in the correct order. 1. field researchinteractions between soil and 1. 3. particularly serious problem semiarid, arid watercommonly dependnatural rainfallsome areas precipitationinfrequent, erratic form of simulated rainfall

2. dependence on natural rainfalllimit 4. rainfall simulator device researcher control researchbecause timing, characteristics of a frequency, rates, intensities rainfall his studies rainnot knownit is over

EXERCISE 2.12 Library

Refer back to the Stage I example that you found for Library Exercise 2.4. In it, underline all generic noun phrases once and all specificnoun phrases twice. Circle old information and then answer the following questions. 1.

What was the approximate ratio of generic noun phrases to specific noun phrases in your

selection? 2. 3.

Which of the generic nouns you found were countable? Which ones were uncountable?

Of the countable generics, how many were written in the plural form? How many were written in the singular form with a or an? Did you find any countable generic nouns that were marked with the? 4. 5.

For each specific noun phrase in your example, find the reference either before or after the noun, or implied, that makes the noun specific. Did the author use implicit old information?

INTEGRATION

EXERCISE 2.13 Guided Writing

So far in this chapter we have seen how to organize information in the introduction to an experimental research report. We have also seen how the first stage of the introduction, the setting, is written and what some of the language conventions are. in this exercise you will write your own Stage I. Your topic will be World Food Shortages in the Next Decade.

1. Imagine you are a researcher working for the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the

United Nations. For the last year, you have been gathering statistical data that will allow you to predict the location and severity of food shortages for the coming decade. Your data include:

?gross national product???from selected countries of the world for the past 20 years

food production figures?export and import figures??2. You must now write a report to be published by the U.N. stating your findings and making your

predictions.

3. Suppose you have already organized and outlined the information for the other stages of the

introduction to your report except Stage I. The other three stages will include the following information:

Stage II: Information already reported by other authors:

FAO Reports from 1965, 1975, and 1985.

per capita incomeStage III: Information still needed:

World food supply predictions for the next 10 years.

Stage IV: Purpose of your study:

To determine the location and severity of potential food shortages around the world in the coming decade.

4. In your setting (Stage I), you should establish a frame of reference for your readers, an

orientation that will give them the perspective needed to understand your report. Some of the related ideas are listed here.

import/export balances food: essential for human life food shortages social unrest hunger

Select and sequence some of these ideas or add others of your own.

5. Now write your Stage I. Remember, the general tendency in an introduction is to move from

general to specific ideas by progressing from a general area to a subarea to your topic. Also, remember to use old information as a linking device between sentences. Limit your setting to one or two paragraphs.

EXERCISE 2.14 Writing Up Your Own Research

Now that you have practiced writing the setting for the introduction to a research report on a topic of general interest, apply what you have learned in this chapter to the topic you selected for your own research project in Chapter 1. Write a setting (Stage I) for the introduction to your study.

climatic changes new technology population growth rich and poor countries Before you start writing, think about how you can best orient your readers to your specific topic. Remember, the setting should give them a frame of reference that will allow them to see how your topic fits into the wider \To help you plan this section, consider the organization and language conventions we have studied in this chapter. Refer to the following checklist to help you remember these points.

CHECKLIST FOR CHAPTER 2

Introduction: Stage 1 INFORMATION

________ Move from general to specific statements.

_______ Begin with generally accepted statements of fact about an area ofstudy. _______ Identify one subarea within the general area which includes yourtopic. _______ Arrange ideas in logical sequence.

_______ Use old information at the beginning of your sentences. LANGUAGE

_______ Mark generic noun phrases appropriately:

__________ plural -s; __________ a or an; __________ no article; __________ the.

_______ Mark specific noun phrases appropriately:

__________ the.

_______ Indicate old information by using repeated or derived words, pronouns, or pointing words

or by implying old information.

3 INTRODUCTION:ReviewingPreviousResearch

OVERVIEW

In Stage I of your introduction you establish a setting for your research topic. In Stage II you review the findings of other researchers who have already published in your area of interest. For this reason, Stage H is often called the review of literature. It is essentially an organized collection of references, or citations. to other works which are listed in a separate section at the end of your report.

The review of literature serves three important functions. First, it continues the process started in Stage 1 of giving your readers background information needed to understand your study. Second, it assures your readers that you are familiar with the important research that has been carried out in your area. Third, it establishes your study as one link in a chain of research that is developing and enlarging knowledge in your field.

FIGURE 3.1 Literature review (Stage II).

INFORMATION CONVENTIONS

The following introduction is from a report in the field of ecology. Notice howStage II supports the background information presented in Stage I.

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF LITTER AND MICROARTHROPODS IN A CHIHUAHUAN

DESERT ECOSYSTEM

1In most deserts of the world, transitions between topographic elements are 2abrupt and watercourses which are dry most of the time tend to dissipate their occasional waters within local basins. Stage I Occasional torrential rainfall, characteristic of most desert regions, washes loose debris into watercourses or transports this material, depositing it in and along the shores of ephemeral lakes. 3These physical processes result in a redistribution of dead plant material (litter), Therefore, before the dynamics of desert ecosystems can be adequately 5affect the distribution of soil water and create a heterogeneous biotic community. 4understood, the spatial relationships must be clarified. There have been few studies of litter distribution and/or soil fauna in any of the world deserts (Millwork, 1976). 6Wood (1971) surveyed the soil fauna in a number of Australian arid and semiarid ecosystems. ?Millwork (1972) made some studies of the microarthropod fauna in the California Mojave desert and Stage II Edney et al. (1974, 1975, 1976) studied abundance and distribution of soil microarthropods in the Mojave desert in Nevada. 8In the Chihuahuan desert, Whitford et al. (1975, 1976, 1977) described the spatial relationships for many groups of organisms, but soil microarthropods remain unstudied. 9Stage III The lack of such information represents a gap in our knowledge of desert As part of our continuing program of studies of the structure and dynamics ecosystems. 10Stage IV of Chihuahuan desert ecosystems, we designed the study reported here to understand the relationship between litter redistribution and the spatial

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