预期的工人（见图一-11）。 即使在相同的文化环境中，由于个人，背景和经验，在各个级别（命令链）上升或下降的消息被调平（一些细节丢失。 浓缩（变得更短和更简单）; （一些细节突出显示，从而变得更加重要）。 （歧义被澄清和解释为符合过去的信息和来自个别参考框架的未来期望）。 和装饰（细节被添加。）。

Holtz’s first strategy would be effective, as it would probably accomplish his objective of getting Mr. Thani to arrive at work more promptly. However，given the expectations of the Thai culture ,which is that one person never directly criticizes another, such behavior would be very inappropriate. Conversely, Holtz's second strategy would be appropriate but not effective, as there would probably be no change in Mr. Thani's behavior. The third option would be neither appropriate nor effective because public humiliation might force Mr. Thani, a valued employee, to resign. The fourth option, which is the best choice, is both appropriate and effective. By using an indirect means to communicate his concerns, Mr. Thani will be able to \” while Holtz accomplishes his strategic goals. 泰国文化对当面批评的态度

Holtz的第一个战略是有效的，因为它可能实现他的目标，让Thani先生更快地到达工作。 然而，鉴于泰国文化的期望，这是一个人从来没有直接批评另一个，这样的行为将是非常不适当的。 相反，霍尔茨的第二个策略是适当的但不是有效的，因为可能没有改变Thani先生的行为。 第三个选择是不适当也不有效，因为公开的羞辱可能迫使有价值的雇员Thani先生辞职。 第四个选择是最好的选择，既适当又有效。 通过使用间接手段传达他的关注，Thani先生将能够“保护脸”，而Holtz实现他的战略目标。 P30图表

Chapter 2

artifact (which includes items ranging from arrowheads to hydrogen bombs, magic c harms to antibiotic s to electric lights, and chariots to jet planes)

concepts (which include such beliefs or value systems as right or wrong, God and man, ethics，and the general meaning oflife);

behavior (which refers to the actual practice of concepts or beliefs.p.5)

人工制品（包括从箭头到氢弹，魔法伤害，抗生素到电灯，以及战车到喷气式飞机） 概念（包括这些信仰或价值体系是对或错，上帝和人，伦理，以及生命的一般含义）; 行为（指的是概念或信仰的实际实践.5） 接下来这些太多自己看书= =

(1)文化影响生物进程。(2)文化具有选择性，理解最后一句。P45

(2)culture metaphors and explanation 关于文化的比喻和解释（洋葱，冰山）P46 P47 (3Clyde Kluckhohn认为：价值观是“个人或群体所特有的一种显形或隐形的认为什么是可取的观

念，这一观念影响人们从现有的种种行动模式、方式和目的中做出选择。”P48

52-55 Klukholn and Strodbeck?s价值观理论 55-60 Hofstede-Bond?s value orientations 56-57表格

4. Hall?s high- and low- context orientation P62, 63 图表Fig2-4.Fig 2-5

Chapter 3：

An accent is the unique specific mode of personal discourse characterize d by how people articulate certain words using a unique inflection or tone. Such variations in pronunciation are often a result of geographical or historical differences. Unfortunately, cultures sometimes ascribe behavioral or intellectual characteristics to different accents.

口音是个人话语的独特的具体模式，通过人们如何使用唯一的变化或音调来表达某些话语。这种发音变化往往是地理或历史差异的结果。不幸的是，文化有时将行为或智力特征归因于不同的口音。

Semantics is the study of meaning --that is, how words communicate the meanings we intend in

our Communication.The emphasis in semantics is on the generation of meaning, focusing on a Single word. the rules for combining

语义学是对意义的研究 - 也就是说，词汇如何传达我们在通信中的意义。语义的重点在于生成意义，关注单个单词。合并规则

Syntacticsis the study of the structure or grammar of a language words into meaningful sentences. One way to think of syntactics is to consider how the order of the words in a Sentence creates a particular meaning.

语法是将语言单词的结构或语法研究成有意义的句子。一种思考句法的方法是考虑句子中的单词的顺序如何创造特定的意义。

Pragmatics is the study of how meaning is constructed in relation to receivers, how language is actually used in particular context in language communities.

语用学是研究如何构建与接收者的关系，语言如何在语言社区的特定语境中实际使用。 Phonetics is the study of the sound system of language--how words are pronounced, which units of sounds (phonemes) are meaningful for a specific language, and which sounds are universal. Because different languages use different sounds，it is often difficult for non-native speakers to learn how to pronounce some sounds.

语音学是对语言的声音系统的研究 - 字如何发音，声音（音素）的单位对于特定语言是否有意义，以及哪些声音是普遍的。因为不同的语言使用不同的声音，非母语的人经常难以学习如何发音的一些声音。

Machine translation

Interest in machine translation has been growing in the computer age. Machines have reduced th e burden of some elementary, routine translations. However, language variations In grammar, sentence structure, an d culture make this a daunting task. Communication always involves many layers of meaning, and when you move between languages, there are m any more opportunities for misunderstanding. Although computer-driven translations have improved dramatically over earlier attempts ， translation is still intensely cultural. That's why it is believed that it is unlikely that machines will replace human translators in the foreseeable future ．

机器翻译的兴趣在计算机时代一直在增长。机器减少了一些基本的日常翻译的负担。然而，语言变化在语法，句子结构和文化使这是一个艰巨的任务。沟通总是涉及许多层次的意义，当你在语言之间移动时，会有更多的误解机会。虽然计算机驱动的翻译比以前的尝试有了显着的改进，但翻译仍然是强烈的文化。这就是为什么相信机器不可能在可预见的未来取代人类翻译

The field of translation studies is rapidly becoming more central to academic inquiry for many disciplines. The developments will have a tremendous impact on how academics approach intercultural communication . Perhaps intercultural communication scholars will play a larger role in the developments Of translation studies ．机器翻译的缺陷 翻译研究领域正在迅速成为许多学科的学术探究的核心。这些发展将对学术界如何接近跨文化交际产生巨大影响。也许跨文化交际学者将在翻译研究的发展中发挥更大的作用 语言反映环境

In china there is only the single time for骆驼;in English, there is camel(or dromedary for the one-humped camel, and Bactrian camel for the two-humped animal) but in Arabic, it said that there are more than 400 words for the animal with differences in the camel's age ，sex ，breed,

size, etc.whether the animal is used for carrying heavy loads or not. The reason for this is that the camel is of far greater importance as a means of travel for most Arabic- speaking people.

在中国，骆驼只有一次;在英语中，有骆驼（或单峰骆驼为双峰驼的双峰驼，双峰驼为双峰驼），但在阿拉伯语中，它说有超过400字对于具有骆驼的年龄，性别，品种，大小等的差异的动物，动物是否用于承载重负荷。这样做的原因是，骆驼作为大多数阿拉伯语的人的旅行方式具有更大的重要性。

The Koga of southern India have seven different words for bamboo, which is an important natural resource in their tropical environment, yet have not a Single word for snow. 印度南部的考古有七个不同的词，竹是热带环境中的一个重要的自然资源，但没有一个单词的雪。

In areas where it snows occasionally, people have a word for snow, but it may just be one word without any differentiations. People Who live in an environment where it snows during most months of the year may have a much more differentiated terminology for snow. The Eskimos? complex classification Of types Of snow is a classic example Of the close connection between language and culture. There is one word for “falling snow” another word for “fallen snow”, still another word for “snow packed into ice” The Eskimos View snow as categorically different substances because their very survival requires a precise knowledge Of snow conditions. English doesn't have the equivalent of “flake snow”or “crusty snow” for example. When the needs become more specific, however, longer phrases can be made up to meet these needs, such as ''corn snow\“fine powder snow”and “drifting snow ”etc.

在偶尔下雪的地方，人们有一个字用于雪，但它可能只是一个字，没有任何区别。人们生活在一年中大多数月份下雪的环境中，可能会有更多差异的雪术术语。爱斯基摩人对雪类型的复杂分类是语言和文化之间密切联系的经典例子。有一个词“落雪”另一个词为“落雪”，又一个词“雪包装成冰”爱斯基摩人视雪是截然不同的物质，因为他们的生存需要一个精确的雪情况的知识。英语没有相当于例如“薄片雪”或“硬皮雪”。然而，当需求变得更具体时，可以制作更长的短语以满足这些需要，例如“玉米雪”，“细粉雪”和“漂流雪”等。

The Sami language Of northern Scandinavia, has 500 words for “snow”and several thousand for “reindeer”

北斯堪的纳维亚的萨米语，有500个单词的“雪”和几千的“驯鹿”

The Zulu tongues have 39 words for \祖鲁语有39个词为“绿色”

South Pacific Islanders have numerous words for “coconuts”南太平洋岛民有很多词“椰子”． The Chinese and Japanese have a variety of words for “rice” and ' “ tea”：中国和日本有“米”和“茶”的各种话：

1. Language as a reflection Of values P82亲属称谓用法（日本称谓图也要看）

In addition to the environment, language also reflects cultural values. Language is a mirror of culture, because language reflects human relationships and the way the society operates. For example, Chinese kinship terms reflect the importance of our family system. In Chinese ， there is an elaborate system of kinship terms, because Chinese families used to be very big and elaborately hierarchical. We care about whether grandmother is on the father's side or on the mother's side. If on the mother's side ， she is called 外祖母， ifon the father's side ， she is called 祖母， But in English they usually do not make this distinction. They just say grandmother.